What Key Club Medals Do They Give to High School Graduates When Having Qa Lot of Volunterring Hours

What is the impact of teacher professional development on student learning outcomes? This is a critical question asked increasingly often by policy-makers, school leadership teams, teacher professional associations and many others with a stake in providing high quality teaching for all students. Recent work in the Teaching and Learning Research Group at the Australian Council for Educational Research has explored this critical question in a number of evaluation studies of teacher professional development. This chapter outlines some key research findings, and concludes that more is now understood about what constitutes effective professional development and about the links between such professional development, changes in teachers' knowledge and practice, and improved learning outcomes. This has implications for evaluations of teacher professional development programs; it also has implications for the timing of evaluation questionnaires and for the nature of information collected in those evaluations.

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HANDBOOK OF TEACHER

EDUCATION

Globalization, Standards and

Professionalism in Times of Change

Edited by

TONY TOWNSEND

Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, U.S.A.

and

RICHARD BATES

Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-4773-8 (ebook)

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4773-2 (ebook)

ISBN-10 1-4020-4772-X (HB)

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4772-5 (HB)

Published by Springer,

P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

www.springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording

or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception

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for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Printed in the Netherlands.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ix

SECTION ONE

GLOBALIZATION AND DIVERSITY:

PROMISE OR PROBLEM?

1. TONY TOWNSEND AND R ICHARD B ATES / Teacher Education in a

New Millennium: Pressures and Possibilities 3

2. JONATHAN J ANSEN / Learning and Leading in a Globalized World:

The Lessons from South Africa 25

3. AHMED M. AL -HINAI / The Interplay between Culture, Teacher

Professionalism and Teachers' Professional Development at

Times of Change 41

4. KONAI HELU T HAMAN / Partnerships for Progressing Cultural

Democracy in Teacher Education in Pacific Island Countries 53

5. JANINKA GREENWOOD AND L IZ B ROWN / The Treaty, the Institution and

the Chalkface: An Institution-wide Project in Teacher Education 67

6. IVAN REID , KEVIN BRAIN AND LOUISE COMERFORD BOYES / Where have

all the Teachers Gone? Gone to be Leaders, Everyone 79

SECTION TWO

STANDARDS AND ACCOUNTABILITY:

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE A GOOD TEACHER AND

HOW CAN WE MAKE IT HAPPEN?

7. DAVID G. I MIG AND S COTT R. I MIG / Quality in Teacher Education:

Seeking a Common Definition 95

8. MIKE NEWBY / Standards and Professionalism: Peace Talks? 113

9. RICHARD BATES / Regulation and Autonomy in Teacher Education:

System or Democracy? 127

10. LAWRENCE A NGUS / Globalisation and the Reshaping of Teacher

Professional Culture: Do We Train Competent Technicians or

Informed Players in the Policy Process? 141

11. A YSEN B AKIOGLU AND O ZGE H ACIFAZLIOGLU / Academics'Perceptions

of Private University Establishment Standards and

Teaching Quality 157

SECTION THREE

TEACHER PREPARATION: GETTING THE BRIGHTEST AND

MAKING THEM THE BEST

12. BEVERLEY JANE / Mentoring in Teacher Education: An Experience that

Makes a Difference for Fledgling University Students 179

13. JANETTE R YAN / Exploring 'Lifewide Learning' as a Vehicle for Shifting

Pre-service Teachers' Conceptions of Teaching and Learning 193

14. DAVID ZYNGIER / Productive Pedagogies: Seeking a Common Vocabulary

and Framework for Talking about Pedagogy with Pre-service Teachers 205

15. ROBERT P. P ELTON / From Performing to Performance: Can the

Repositioning of Teacher Candidates Create a Measurable Impact on

Children's Achievement While Developing Positive Teaching

Dispositions? 219

16. RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY / Maori Student Retention and

Success: Curriculum, Pedagogy and Relationships 229

17. MAHMOUD AL -WEHER AND MAJED ABU -JABER / The Effectiveness of

Teacher Preparation Programs in Jordan: A Case Study 241

18. L YDIA P UNGUR / Mentoring as the Key to a Successful Student

Teaching Practicum: A Comparative Analysis 267

19. TERI C. D AVIS AND B ARBARA M OELY / Preparing Pre-service

Teachers and Meeting the Diversity Challenge through Structured

Service-learning and Field Experiences in Urban Schools 283

20. LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE / Teaching Internships and

the Learning Community 301

SECTION FOUR

TEACHER INDUCTION: FROM NEOPHYTE TO

PROFESSIONAL IN THREE EASY STEPS

21. IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN / Workplace Contexts of New Teachers:

An American Tradition of "Paying One's Dues" 317

22. H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND G AIL E. B URNAFORD / Re-thinking the Basis

for "High Quality" Teaching: Teacher Preparation in Communities 331

23. ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE / The Transition Process: The Early Years of

Being a Teacher 343

24. JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE / The Knowledge Building

Community Program: A Partnership for Progress in

Teacher Education 365

25. VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER / Newly Qualified Teachers in

Hong Kong: Professional Development or Meeting one's Fate? 381

26. JANET DRAPER , FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN / Meeting the Standard?

The New Teacher Education Induction Scheme in Scotland 391

CONTENTS

SECTION FIVE

CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS:

THE CHALLENGE TO CHANGE

27. MARION MEIERS / Teacher Professional Learning, Teaching Practice and

Student Learning Outcomes: Important Issues 409

28. CHENG M AY HUNG , AU KIT OI , P ANG K ING C HEE AND C HEUNG

LAI MAN / Defining the Meaning of Teacher Success in

Hong Kong 415

29. IVAN REID , KEVIN BRAIN AND LOUISE COMERFORD BOYES / Networked

Learning Communities: Joined up Working? 433

30. CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER / Lesson study:

An Opportunity for Teacher Led Professional Development 445

31. MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON / An Alternative Approach to CPD:

an Evaluation of the Impact on Individual and Institutional

Development of an Action Learning Programme Run in Partnership

by an HE institution (HEI) and a Sixth Form College (SFC) 457

32. RUTH GORINSKI / Building Leadership Capability through Professional

Development: A New Zealand Case Study Analysis 465

33. JILL SMITH / A Case Study: The Dilemmas of Biculturalism in Education

Policy and Visual Arts Education Practice in Aotearoa-New Zealand 479

34. HARRISON T SE / Professional Development through Transformation:

Linking Two Assessment Models of Teachers' Reflective Thinking

and Practice 495

35. AMY A.M. Y IP / Action Research and Tacit Knowledge: A Case of the

Project Approach 507

36. MARGARET T APLIN , DOROTHY NGFUNG PING AND HUANG FUQIAN /

The Impact of a Collaborative Model for Curriculum Restructuring

on Teachers' Professional Growth 523

37. DANJUN YING / Teacher Educators'Collaborative Inquiry in a Context

of Educational Innovation in China – A Case Study of RICH as a

Learning Community 539

SECTION SIX

THE REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONER: THE WAY FORWARD

38. NEIL HOOLEY / Participation and the Question of Knowledge 557

39. ALEX MOORE / Understanding the Social Self: The Role and Importance

of Reflexivity in Schoolteachers'Professional Learning 571

40. JOHN LOUGHRAN / Teachers as Leaders: Building a Knowledge Base of

Practice through Researching Practice 585

41. CHRISTOPHER DAY / School Reform and Transitions in Teacher

Professionalism and Identity 597

vii

CONTENTS

viii

42. EILEEN HONAN / Teachers Engaging in Research as Professional

Development 613

SECTION SEVEN

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY: TOOL OF THE

TRADE OR THE TERROR FOR TEACHERS?

43. GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER / ICTs and Tomorrow's Teachers:

Informing and Improving the ICT Undergraduate Experience 627

44. P AUL GATHERCOAL , JUDITH CROWE , S ILVA K ARAYAN, THOMAS

MCCAMBRIDGE , SUSANNE MALISKI , DOUGLAS O. L OVE AND

GERRY W. M CK EAN / Webfolios: Authentic of State and

Accreditation Standards 641

45. MURIEL WELLS / Collaborative Online Projects in a Global Community 657

46. MANJULA W ANIGANAYAKE, S USAN W ILKS AND R ON L INSER /

Creating Thinking Professionals: Teaching and Learning about

Professional Practice Using Interactive Technology 675

47. CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON / The Complexities of

Learning to Teach: "Just What Is It That I Am Doing?" 691

48. GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO / Pre-Service Teachers

Self-perceptions of ICTE: An Australian Perspective 711

AFTERWORD

RICHARD BATES AND TONY TOWNSEND / The Future of Teacher

Education: Challenges and Opportunities 727

APPENDICES

The Editors 737

Information About the Authors 739

INDEX 745

CONTENTS

This book has its origins in conversations that started when the International Council

on Education for Teaching (ICET) and the Australian Teacher Education Association

(ATEA) jointly agreed to co-sponsor a World Assembly of Teacher Educators in

Melbourne in July 2003, hosted by Monash University. The editors of this book were

not only intimately involved in the management of the conference but had also been

key figures in the Associations involved. Tony Townsend had been secretary, and on the

national board of the South Pacific Association for Teacher Education (SPATE), which

later became ATEA and had previously managed a SPATE conference in Frankston,

Australia, in the 1980s. He is currently the President of ICET and now works at Florida

Atlantic University. Richard Bates has been a long time board member of ATEA and is

currently President of that organization. He is also a Board member of ICET.

The International Council on Education for Teaching (ICET) was founded in 1953

for the purpose of emphasizing international cooperation in educational development

in order to improve the quality of teacher education as well as to expand global edu-

cational opportunities for people in teacher education. Since that time, ICET has

developed into an international association of practitioners of teacher education,

policy and decision-makers in education, government and business dedicated to

global development through education. ICET is a Non-Governmental Organization

(NGO) and participates in NGO meetings and other UNESCO-sponsored confer-

ences around the world.

Scholars, administrator, practitioners from universities, colleges, departments and

institutes of education as well as members of government ministries, the teaching

profession and business leaders that are interested in educational development par-

ticipate in ICET and share their ideas, research and experience with other profes-

sionals from around the world. The main goals of ICET are:

●To foster international cooperation in improving the quality of preparation of

teachers, administrators and other education specialists through the development

of national, regional and international networks.

●To promote cooperation between higher education institutions, government and

the private sector to develop a worldwide network of resources for innovative pro-

grams in international educational development.

●To provide an international forum for the exchange of information and the dis-

cussion of issues and trends in education and development.

●To assist educational personnel training institutions all over the world to respond

to the need for improved facilities, diversified curricula and alternative and non-

traditional educational methods.

PREFACE

The Australian Teacher Education Association (ATEA) is the major professional

association for teacher educators in Australia. The mission of the Australian Teacher

Education Association is to promote:

●The preservice and continuing education of teachers in all forms and contexts;

●teacher education as central in the educational enterprise of the nation;

●research on teacher education as a core endeavour.

The Association enacts this mission through several key strategies, namely:

●to foster improvement in initial teacher education;

●to engage in national advocacy for teacher education;

●to promote and support the teaching profession;

●to form strong links with individuals and organisations involved in educational

change;

●to improve the nature, quality and availability of professional development for

teachers educators, and

●to promote and disseminate research, ideas and practices, innovation and evalua-

tion in teacher education.

The Melbourne Conference was a good example of ICET and ATEA at their best.

With a partnership between an international and a national association, it was able to

bring key speakers and delegates from all over the world to consider its theme

'Teachers as Leaders: Teacher Education for a Global Profession'. The keynote

speakers and the papers contained topics of such interest that we felt that it was

timely to gather together a series of perspectives of critical issues facing teacher edu-

cation at this time. This idea was supported by Michel Lokhorst, then editor of

Kluwer-Springer and has been subsequently been followed through by Astrid

Noordermeer of Springer. The editors would like to acknowledge both people for

their support, without which this book could not have been published.

In addition, we dedicate this book to the thousands of teacher educators around the

world, many of whom are feeling under various types of pressure, from the commu-

nity and the government, from lack of funding and other resources and from an

increasingly difficult task that faces them, for their sustained commitment to devel-

oping young people into the teaching force necessary to confront a rapidly changing

and increasingly complex world.

PREFACE

SECTION ONE

GLOBALIZATION AND DIVERSITY:

PROMISE OR PROBLEM?

INTRODUCTION

Teacher education is currently facing a number of tensions as pressures have come from

many quarters in the last decade, with perhaps the most intense focus being on the issue

of teacher quality. This call for an improvement in the quality of teachers is welcomed

by many, but there are inherent dangers too. Cochran-Smith (2004a, p. 3) writes:

Over the past several years, a new consensus has emerged that teacher

quality is one of the most, if not the most, significant factor in students'

achievement and educational improvement. In a certain sense, of course,

this is good news, which simply affirms what most educators have believed

for years: teachers'work is important in students' achievement and in their

life chances. In another sense, however, this conclusion is problematic, even

dangerous. When teacher quality is unequivocally identified as the primary

factor that accounts for differences in student learning, some policy makers

and citizens may infer that individual teachers alone are responsible for the

successes and failures of the educational system despite the mitigation of

social and cultural contexts, support provided for teachers'ongoing devel-

opment, the historical failure of the system to serve particular groups, the

disparate resources devoted to education across schools and school sys-

tems, and the match or mismatch of school and community expectations

and values. Influenced by the new consensus about teacher quality, some

constituencies may infer that "teachers teaching better" is the panacea for

disparities in school achievement and thus conclude that everybody else is

off the hook for addressing the structural inequalities and differential power

relations that permeate our nation's schools.

The issue of increasingly varied demographic conditions that have led to students

from all over the world being in a single classroom, with the associated need for teach-

ers to deal with multiculturalism, whether they like it or not, has created a new com-

plexity not faced by most teachers a decade or so ago. Teacher shortages in some parts

of the world has led to the possibility of teachers moving from one country to another

as the demand for teachers and associated wage rates make teaching a market unlike we

have experienced before. As teachers increasingly are blamed for lack of student per-

formance, as politicians choose to offset any responsibility they have for the condi-

tions under which teachers work, so too, teacher educators are targeted as being one of

the problems associated with what is perceived to be low levels of student achievement.

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

1. TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW

MILLENNIUM: PRESSURES AND POSSIBILITIES

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 3–22.

These and other dilemmas for teacher education institutions and teacher educators

open up the opportunity for a detailed analysis of a number of major issues using data

collected from around the world. The key issues of globalization versus diversity, the

need for high quality pre-service programs, for well managed and supported integration

of new teachers into the teaching force and ongoing professional development for

that workforce, lead to two of the major factors that will impinge on the teaching

profession in the future; the need for the teacher to become a consistent, reflective

practitioner and the need to use rapidly developing technologies, both ICT and other

learning technologies, in an increasingly effective manner, to promote high quality

student learning for all students.

It is a fairly trying time for teacher educators, as well as for anyone else in education.

In many western countries, governments are now thinking that the cost of educating their

populations should be lowered at the same time as they expect school administrators,

teachers, and teacher educators, to do much more, in more difficult circumstances, than

they have ever done before. This has been translated by government as the need to have

'highly qualified teachers' in front of every classroom. US Secretary of Education,

Margaret Spellings, in her 2005 report on teacher quality argued the focus should be on:

… the essential principles for building outstanding teacher preparation

programs in the 21st century and … on the critical teaching skills all

teachers must learn. In particular, all teacher preparation programs

must provide teachers with solid and current content knowledge and

essential skills. These include the abilities to use research-based methods

appropriate for their content expertise; to teach diverse learners and to

teach in high-need schools; and to use data to make informed instruc-

tional decisions. Successful and promising strategies for promoting these

skills include making teacher education a university-wide commitment;

strengthening, broadening, and integrating field experience throughout

the preparation program; strengthening partnerships; and creating quality

mentoring and support programs.

(Spellings, 2005, p. iii)

Each of these strategies involves the necessity of doing things differently than how

they were done in the past. Typically, Colleges of Education are seen as being at the

bottom of the totem pole in universities, with some disciplines arguing that Teacher

Education shouldn't even be there in the first place.

As well, comparatively recent research activity, now called the school effectiveness

movement, has tried to show that schools can and do make a difference, as a refutation

of the earlier work by Coleman and others in the 1960s which concluded:

Schools bring little influence to bear on a child's achievement that is

independent of his background and general social context.

(Coleman et al ., 1966, p. 325)

However, the school effectiveness research has been a double-edged sword. As

Reynolds has argued, the school effectiveness research has had the positive effect of

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

'helping to destroy the belief that schools can do nothing to change the society

around them … and the myth that the influence of the family is so strong on children's

development that they are unable to be affected by school' (Reynolds, 1994, p. 2), but

he also argues that it has had the negative effect of 'creating the widespread, popular

view that schools do not just make a difference, but that they make all the difference'

(Reynolds, 1994, p. 2).

This fairly new expectation that every student can and will be educated to high levels

of achievement, as typified by the No Child Left Behind Act in the USA, has been made

more difficult by a government that chooses to spend less on all forms of education

than previously. Although nearly 60% of Americans indicated they would vote for a

presidential candidate with a strong focus on public education and who would funnel

more resources into education (Public Education, 2004), in February 2005, President

Bush called for almost a 10% cut in education funding for the 2005–06 year, which

would have seen the elimination of 48 programs (AACTE Briefs, March 21, 2005).

The challenge is even greater when one looks at student achievement historically

in the United States. For almost thirty years, the percentage of students who achieve

proficiency has remained at approximately 30%. To imply that teachers, and teacher

educators, can somehow increase this percentage to 100% or somewhere close to it,

with less funding at the classroom level and less public support for the profession

than ever before suggests that No Child Left Behind might simply be another slogan

to disguise a chronic and perhaps unmovable level of underperformance. One might

ask why the richest country in the world, one that could put man on the moon, when

it put its mind to it, fails to educate nearly seventy percent of its people? One possible

answer is that, as a community, it chooses not to. A commitment to address the real

social issues that support underachievement in school would have far greater impli-

cations than any new slogan might have.

Instead, there have been reports in some parts of the world that suggest that teachers

are not well trained. Much of the criticism has been directed at the training institutions.

Schools of Education … are neither preparing teachers adequately to use

the concrete findings of the best research in education, nor are they pro-

viding their students with a thoughtful and academically rich background

in the fundamentals of what it means to be an outstanding educator.

(Steiner and Rozen, 2003, np)

Comments such as these have led to a lowering of status for teachers and, in many

cases, an unwillingness on the part of young people to enter the profession. To try

and overcome this, alternative ways of certifying teachers has emerged. The 2003

Report to Congress by then Secretary Rod Paige (see www.title2.org), indicated the

Bush government's commitment to 'raising the academic standards for teachers

while lowering the barriers that are keeping many talented people out of the teaching

profession' and the response to this has been twofold. First there has been a push to

increase the responsibility on Colleges of Education to improve what they do, and

this has been accompanied by more focused attention on certain areas (such as

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

Reading) and much higher standards of accreditation. Governments raised the expecta-

tions about the level of ability required by graduates of teacher education institutions,

to the extent that in some places, laws have been passed that hold Colleges of

Education responsible for the achievement of the students that their graduates teach,

regardless of the conditions under which they work in the field. If a principal com-

plains that a new teacher is not as good as they require, the College of Education

must undertake, at their cost, the remedial activity requested.

At the same time, many governments, because of the shortage of teachers available,

are setting up alternative methods for people to enter the teaching force. Some of

these alternative programs involve very little, if any, academic training in the practice

of pedagogy. Temporary Certification is handed out to almost anyone with a degree

and a willingness to do the job. Thus at a time when teacher education institutions are

being held accountable for their graduates, other people who may not have any training

at all are being encouraged to become teachers. If this is not a contradiction, we are

not sure what is.

David Imig, President of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education,

interpreted this as meaning 'increasing prospective teachers' content knowledge while

lowering requirements in pedagogy or teacher education' (Imig, 2004, p. 2). This has

brought about the situation where people who have an undergraduate degree in 'one

of the so-called core subjects' (Ibid, p. 2) are given a fast-track alternative program to

get them into the front of the classrooms as soon as possible. What is being said here

is that anyone who has the content knowledge can become a teacher. It suggests that

there is only minimal inherent training required to teach. This has led to the position

where 'instead of investing in traditional preparation, the government will continue

to invest millions in alternative certif ication and in studies that might show the success

of alternative efforts' (Ibid, p. 2).

This move to alternative certification closely parallels the move towards charter

schools as the chosen mechanism for improving public education in the US.

Here, schools are given the choice to opt out of the system and determine their own

course and future. The No Child Left Behind website (http://www.ed.gov/ nclb/land-

ing. jhtml?src pb) is instructive in that it is, in effect, an advertising mechanism

for charter schools. Yet all of the evidence suggests that charter schools, by and

large, are no more nor less successful than are public schools. As in the public

school system, the demographics of the students, the passion and ability of the

teachers and the pressure of the parents will lead to the outcomes the school has. In

some cases, charter schools have improved student achievement, in some cases they

have got worse, but in most cases the results are similar to what they were previ-

ously. One might argue, that since the parents had made the decision to remove their

child from the public school system, that the level of parental pressure in a charter

school would be higher than that in a comparative public school. If this was so, then

charter schools should make a difference. When they didn't, the US Government

conveniently changed the argument for having charter schools from one related to

quality to one related to choice.

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

However, we would argue that such moves, at both the school and College of

Education level are based on at least a simplistic view, if not on completely

misguided perceptions, of the real world. This book seeks to focus on a number of

key issues that teacher educators must consider if the arguments being made above

are to be discussed in a rational and careful way. All of these things seem to oversim-

plify what is a very complex experience, namely learning. It may well be true that

what happens in classrooms and what happens in schools accounts for substantial

variance in student achievement, but at the very least, 40% of this variance can be

attributed to factors that are completely outside of the teachers' and the schools' con-

trol. Research is suggesting that we only know about 20% of the power of the human

mind at this point in time, but what we do know indicates that our experiences, both

in the community and at school, play a large role in how well we learn, what we learn

and what is likely to be the outcome of this learning.

The book is divided into seven separate but connected sections, each of which con-

siders one of these issues. The issues that are discussed, in a way that enables a multitude

of perspectives from different countries and systems to be considered, are:

●Globalization and Diversity: Promise or Problem?

●Standards and Accountability: What does it mean to be a Good Teacher and how

can we make it happen?

●Teacher Preparation: Getting the Brightest and Making them the Best

●Teacher Induction: From Neophyte to Professional in three easy steps

●Continuous Development of Teachers: The Challenge to Change

●The Reflective Practitioner: The Way Forward

●The Impact of Technology: Tool of the Trade or the Terror for Teachers?

In each of these sections we have provided a series of chapters, from authors in many

parts of the world, to consider ways in which these issues have impacted on various

systems. A brief description of what is contained in these sections follows

SECTION ONE: GLOBALIZATION

AND DIVERSITY: PROMISE OR PROBLEM?

Increasing globalization has impacted on teacher education in terms of teachers

now having to understand and cater for a diverse population. In certain parts of the

world there are now classrooms where a multitude of languages are spoken and

where different religious and cultural understandings must be considered when

teaching. A teacher can no longer assume that what seemed to be right to a white

western middle class community, will have meaning for students from other countries

that have different cultural values, different understandings of the values important

for human development and different habits and structures of knowledge. This

has brought about the need for a substantial shift in teacher attitudes about the

task and substantial change in terms of the teacher education program offered by

universities.

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

This is not seen as being positive by all commentators. The impact of the global

economy on education can make life difficult for teachers and may even make it

impossible for teachers to provide the type of education they were trained for:

The role and function of education are undergoing dramatic changes in

response to these economic imperatives. The notion of a broad liberal edu-

cation is struggling for its very survival in a context of instrumentalism and

technocratic rationality where the catchwords are "vocationalism," "skills

formation," "privatization," "commodification," and "managerialism."

(Smyth and Shacklock, 1998, p. 19)

This has led to a worldwide attempt to 'manage'what happens in schools by politicians

and others. The outcome has been a reductionist view of what schools and teachers

should do.

Coupled with this is a worldwide move towards recentralising control

over education through national curricula, testing, appraisal, policy

formulation, profiling, auditing, and the like, while giving the impression

of decentralization and handling control down locally. The image of edu-

cation is also revamped by reconfiguring the work of teaching so that

teachers appear more as deliverers of knowledge, testers of learning and

pedagogical technicians.

(Smyth and Shacklock, 1998, p. 20)

Certainly the diversity of most communities in many parts of the world has made

teaching and educating teachers much more difficult than it has ever been before

and there are expectations that teacher education needs to develop teachers who

have learned to teach with a cultural eye (Irvine, 2003). As well, people who are

trained to teach in a particular geographical area of the world (and governments are

pretty specific about what they want these days) may end up teaching in a different

part of the world or, at the very least, be teaching students from many parts of the

world and whose culture and context were not considered at all during the period in

training.

This section considers the issue of how globalization has impacted, in particular

on countries still trying to establish a strong all-inclusive education system, based

on the best ideas from other parts of the world but still maintaining the cultural

integrity of the people. First, Jonathan Jansen describes how the overthrow of the

apartheid regime brings new issues for educational development. A key focus of the

chapter will be on the intersections between power, policy and practice within

schools and classrooms; and on the ways in which teacher identities have been

shaped and re-shaped as a consequence. Simply bringing two previously separated

groups together in institutions of learning does not ensure reconciliation of the two

groups.

In Oman, where the government seeks to move from largely an expatriate workforce

to one that is mostly local, Ahmed M. Al-Hinai examines the way in which cultural

issues interact with the ways in which teachers become more professional.

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

Konai Helu Thaman, from Fiji, discusses the concern among educators and educa-

tionists about the low quality of primary and secondary education in many Pacific

Island Countries despite over 30 years of mainly donor-aided educational reforms.

Some reasons for this include the apparent lack of ownership of the processes as well

as the content of school education by the people themselves and the continuing domi-

nance of foreign ideas and ideologies in Pacific school curricula.

Janinka Greenwood and Liz Brown, from New Zealand, consider the issue of quality

in western terms being balanced by the need to consider local culture. There is a need

to interpret a 150 year old treaty, the Treaty of Waitangi, in order to balance what the

indigenous people require with the demands of the globalized world. They also consider

how concepts of capacity building and decolonisation with a consideration of both

Maori and Pakeha (white) perspectives might be developed.

Finally, from England, Ivan Reid, Kevin Brain and Louise Comerford Boyes trace

the dramatic proliferation of leadership roles in English primary and secondary

schools, due mainly to central government education policy of the last two decades.

The chapter considers the ways in which teacher education institutions have

responded in terms of providing initial and in-service education and training to equip

the profession for this new and developing challenge.

SECTION TWO: STANDARDS AND ACCOUNTABILITY:

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE A GOOD TEACHER

AND HOW CAN WE MAKE IT HAPPEN?

The Standards and Accountability movement, which started in schools more than a

decade ago, has now moved to the training of teachers as the next step in the process.

It has been argued that there are a number of factors that have led to the increasing

surveillance of teacher education:

Among these are a deep-seated and growing distrust of teacher education;

a change in the locus of control, with national policy emerging as a

dominant influence; restructuring of licensing and governance;

and reconceptualizing the nature of standards, with performance and

outcomes assuming a preeminent role.

(Roth, 1996, p. 242 cited in Tellez, 2003)

Unlike most other reforms in education, in curriculum, in pedagogy and in areas of

student welfare and support, that are mostly driven by teachers and administrators

seeking to improve what they do on a day to day basis, the standards and accounta-

bility movement has been driven by people outside of education, based mostly on the

idea that we can no longer trust educators to do what is right. Tellez (2003, p.11)

argues:

Like nearly every other reform of the twentieth century, the accountabil-

ity reforms of today did not emerge from the ranks of local educators'

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

wishes or outcries of student need. Rather, such reforms, in retrospect,

have their origins in groups or organizations with enough power, money,

or combination of the two to dictate the reform dimensions.

He suggests that, rather than being done for any purpose of improvement, the

accountability movement became a new toy for politicians to play with:

The so-called success of the standards movement in K-12 has, I believe,

led to the creation of standards in teacher education. The political expe-

diency of the accountability movement has encouraged policy makers,

many of whom are otherwise friendly to the issues teachers and teacher

educators hold dear, to embrace standards wherever they are found.

Legislators have found a hammer in the accountability movement and

everything now looks like a nail. If standards and accountability have

worked in the K-12 system, then they should be applied to all the endeav-

ors funded by the state, including teacher education.

(Tellez, 2003, p. 11)

This section considers the tensions created by the standards and accountability move-

ment in various countries. David and Scott Imig discuss the scene in the US, which

perhaps has driven much of the standards and accountability activity in the last

decade where the political nature of the debate creates dangers for all concerned. They

focus on the politicalization of teacher education and speculate as to the reasons for

this movement, particularly in the context of the United States.

Then Mike Newby considers the progress in England, where surveillance has

replaced trust. He discusses the experience of teacher education and training that

has been dominated by the battle between the policy-makers and funders establish-

ing and inspecting standards of performance, on the one hand, and the practitioners

seeking an alternative model more faithful to the real work of teaching, on the

other.

Richard Bates discusses how increasing regulation raises many social and ethi-

cal issues in Australia and looks at the challenge such prescriptions pose to cur-

riculum, pedagogical and assessment strategies in schools and suggests that such

regulation serves the democratic state less well than a more autonomous form of

education.

Lawrence Angus provides details of how this plays out in one Australian school

and analyses how school managers and teachers deal with government policy inter-

vention and, in the process, both willingly and unwillingly become complicit in the

reconstruction of a global education policy agenda.

Finally, Aysen Bakioglu and Ozge Hacifazlioglu discuss the differences between

public and private universities in Turkey and how they are perceived by faculty work-

ing in them. The chapter discusses student views on their learning, the course content

and teaching methods and considers the implications of the trend for public universi-

ties to seek revenue through increasing teaching hours with a proportional decrease

in research.

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

SECTION THREE: TEACHER PREPARATION:

GETTING THE BRIGHTEST AND MAKING THEM THE BEST

The concerns identified in the previous two sections, increasing globalization and

diversity and a focus on standards and accountability for teacher education come at a

time when many western nations are facing a teacher shortage of unprecedented

proportions. There are various predictions in the US that national demands will reach

2 million teachers in the next few years due to the factors mentioned above (Darling-

Hammond et al ., 1999; Oakes, et al ., 2002). So at a time when there are higher and

higher demands for the graduates of teacher education institutions, the need for putting

bodies in front of classrooms has led to a lowering of entry standards for people who

enter through other means. Darling-Hammond, et al . (2002, p. 286) report:

In California, for example, the number of teachers hired on emergency

permits increased from 12,000 in the early 1990s to more than 40,000 in

2001, or about 14% of the workforce (Shields et al., 2001). In California

and nationally, underqualified teachers are disproportionately assigned

to teach minority and low-income students (National Commission on

Teaching and America's Future, 1996, 1997).

However, it is necessary to make sure that such teachers have the skills required for

the job, regardless of how they came into the profession. It is not just finding any

teacher that is important, but finding the right teacher, with the right skills for

the right situation. Sleeter (2001, p. 94), after conducting an analysis of 80 studies

of the 'effects of various preservice teacher education strategies, including recruiting

and selecting students, cross-cultural immersion experiences, multicultural educa-

tion coursework, and program restructuring', argued:

Most of the research focuses on addressing the attitudes and lack of

knowledge of White preservice students. This review argues that

although this is a very important problem that does need to be addressed,

it is not the same as figuring out how to populate the teaching profession

with excellent multicultural and culturally responsive teachers.

There has also been concern expressed that teacher education institutions may not be

up to the task, mostly because of their resistance to change. While editor of the

Journal of Teacher Education, Marilyn Cochran-Smith (2001a, p. 347) wrote:

Despite many reform initiatives over the years, however, it has been

widely perceived that teacher education has been almost "impervious"

to genuine reform (Fullan, 1998; Goodlad, 1990), failing to keep pace

with the conditions of a changing society even when they threatened its

very existence (Imig & Switzer, 1996). Perhaps it is the combination of a

perceived historical failure to change coupled with the unprecedented

intensity of current public attention that have prompted so many recent

initiatives by prestigious national organizations and foundations that are

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

related to teaching and teacher education, teachers' qualifications, and

teacher quality.

So the issue of recruiting and training new teachers is much more complex than it

was a decade ago. This section looks at a number of ways in which teacher education

institutions have attempted to ensure that the teachers being graduated from their

programs do have the skills and the desire necessary to move into the profession in

ways that will improve what happens in schools. First, Beverly Jane talks about the

need to mentor students into a university in the first place, as moving from school to

university can, in itself, lead to a high dropout rate. This chapter reveals, from the

perspective of one group of students, the process of group interaction in a mentoring

program, and how they came to find their identity as university students.

Janette Ryan argues that recent times have seen a questioning of content-driven,

discipline-based curricula in schools. There have been moves away from these

approaches towards curricula based on the skills and strategies required in a rapidly

changing world. This has resulted in initiatives aimed at promoting 'new learning'

approaches in schools. This chapter reports on an Australian university's initiative

that used the concept of 'lifewide learning', to encourage a shift in students' concep-

tualisations of teaching and learning.

Then, David Zyngier argues that Australian teacher educators and teachers have

become increasingly familiar with the notion of 'Productive Pedagogies', a product

of longitudinal research on school reform recently undertaken in Queensland. One of

its strengths has been its efficacy for teachers to talk about their pedagogical work.

This chapter considers the value of Productive Pedagogies as a metalanguage for

developing preservice teachers' knowledge and understanding of teaching.

Robert P. Pelton argues that teacher candidates have a long history of focusing on

"performing lessons" rather on their impact on children's achievement. The chapter

discusses the restructuring of the field placement component for a group of education

majors at a small private US college and demonstrates how Action Research was used

to shift the focus from "performing" lessons to the impact on, and the subsequent

performance of, young learners.

Ruth Gorinski & Gloria Abernethy, from New Zealand, report on the findings of

an investigative case study that sought to answer the question: "What are the issues

confronting Maori student participation and retention in one department in this

institution?" The chapter discusses the relationship between curricular transformation,

classroom pedagogy and relationships and enhanced retention and success for Maori

teaching students.

Mahmoud Al-Weher and Majed Abu-Jaber discuss three different methods of

teacher preparation in Jordan. The chapter argues that teacher preparation programs

where educational and academic courses were both taught excel over programs that

only have academic courses, based on teacher self-assessments, student assessment

of teachers, and school principals' assessments of teachers in five areas.

Lydia Pungur argues for the importance of the mentoring process in pre-service

training. The chapter argues that the essence of a successful teaching practicum is

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

effective mentor-student teacher relationships and the forging of a close association

with the academic world. A conceptual model for an ideal student teaching program,

based on school coordinator, mentor teacher, and university facilitators working closely

together with common goals for the student teacher, is presented and discussed.

Then, Teri C. Davis and Barbara Moely discuss a recently-implemented teacher

preparation program that offers students a range of service-learning experiences

throughout their academic careers. Finally, Lorelei Carpenter and Bette Blance argue

that internship offered as an integral part of the teacher education programs, has wide

ranging benefits. These include the development of robust school university partner-

ships, the provision of professional development for practising teachers and the

provision of teacher education students with a sustained teaching experience that

prepares for the challenges and complexity of the classroom.

SECTION FOUR: TEACHER INDUCTION:

FROM NEOPHYTE TO PROFESSIONAL IN THREE EASY STEPS

Education systems and teacher education programs need to support the induction of

young teachers into the workforce in ways that ensure their retention over time.

Huling et al . (2001, p. 326) argue that the teacher shortage in the US has come about

because of three intersecting issues:

Today, the nation is facing an unprecedented teacher shortage that will

undoubtedly result in increased attention to alternative certification pro-

grams as a possible means of addressing the school-staffing crisis. The

teacher shortage is being created by a "triple whammy" of increasing

student enrollments, an aging teacher force transitioning from the class-

room into retirement, and a high teacher attrition rate, especially among

novice teachers.

It is the third of these causes, the high teacher attrition rate that this section seeks to

address. Kelley (2004, p. 438) argues:

Recent reports further suggest that staffing needs may not be due to overall

shortages of qualified teachers entering the profession but rather by large

numbers of teachers migrating to other schools or leaving the profession

altogether (Ingersoll, 2000, 2001, 2002). Ingersoll's (2001) analysis of the

national Schools and Staffing Survey and Teacher Follow-Up Survey found

that more than a third of beginning teachers leave the profession during

the first 3 years, and almost half leave after 5 years.

Cochran-Smith (2004b, pp. 387–388) concurs with this analysis of Ingersoll's work:

Ingersoll's analyses challenge the conventional wisdom that the teacher

shortage in the United States is due to a simple imbalance between supply

and demand caused by large numbers of teacher retirements, increased

student enrollments, and an insufficient supply of new teachers. Instead,

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

Ingersoll reveals that it is true that both student enrollments and teacher

retirements have increased since the mid-1980s, that most schools now

have job openings, and that a significant number of schools have been

unable to find enough qualified teachers. However, it is not true that most

teachers who leave teaching do so because of retirement, and it also is not

true that an insufficient number of teachers is being produced. To the con-

trary, Ingersoll (2004) argues that although there are not necessarily

enough teachers produced in every field, there are overall, "more than

enough prospective teachers produced each year in the U.S. (p. 8).

It could be argued that much of this attrition is due to young teachers, who, newly

emerging from their training, are given the hardest classes, the most unruly students

and are left, by and large, to enter their classroom, shut the classroom door, and fend

for themselves. Kelley (2004, p. 438) argues:

Although other professions provide transitional assistance for new mem-

bers (e.g., residents in medicine, interns in architecture, and associates

in law), historically the education profession has ignored the support

needs of its new recruits and has been described as "the profession that

eats its young" (Halford, as cited in Renard, 1999, p. 227).

Although issues of induction into the teaching profession have come a long way since

this time, we could argue that we are still at the front end of the development. Sharon

Feiman-Nemser (2001, p. 17) argues:

There is growing interest in the problem of teacher induction and wide-

spread support for the idea of assigning experienced teachers to work

with beginning teachers. Still, we know relatively little about what

thoughtful mentor teachers do, how they think about their work, and

what novices learn from their interactions with them.

This section examines some of the activities that are currently occurring to support

young teachers to enter the profession in a way that will assist them to be successful.

First, Iris Riggs and Ruth Sandlin consider pre-induction and post-induction differ-

ences in mentors' self-perceived competence in professional teaching standards.

Mentors reported that their ability to implement each standard area significantly

changed in a positive direction after serving as an induction mentor. The chapter

argues that induction may not only be beneficial to new teachers but also to the mentor

teachers supporting the novices.

Jim McLaughlin and Gail Burnaford discuss the difficulty that the US faces in

training, employing and retaining sufficient high quality teachers for the needs that

are on the horizon. They argue that one of the characteristics of high quality teachers

is their ability to interact in a positive way with the community in which they work.

The chapter reports on the internship experiences of teacher students working in

Chicago and Mexico and identifies the positive outcomes for both the student and the

community.

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

Then, Zachariah Wanzare discusses the transition from pre-service training into the

profession of teaching, a shift that is seldom smooth. Whereas most teachers in pre-

service training begin their education programs with confidence, optimism, and a

strong calling to the teaching profession, newly-qualified teachers' dreams, hopes,

aspirations, and optimism often turn into disappointments and frustration. This chapter

discusses the challenges experienced by beginning teachers during their transition into

the teaching profession and the strategies to facilitate their success in the workplace.

Julie Kiggins and Brian Cambourne consider three different but complimentary

perspectives concerning an alternative model of teacher education offered in an

Australian university. The chapter discusses the Knowledge Building Community

(KBC) Project, where an alternative model of teacher education was a joint venture

of a Faculty of Education, a Department of Education and a Teachers'Federation. The

chapter discusses the triadic partnership between preservice teachers, school-based

mentor teachers and university facilitators that was developed.

Then, Victor Forrester and Janet Draper consider issues related to the new teacher's

induction into the profession, including global and local influences such as educational

reforms, demographic changes, concern about standards and the professional ladder,

teacher supply and retention and pressures for school effectiveness and improvement,

which leave 'new' teachers bearing the brunt of new educational policies. They discuss

Nicholson and West's (1989) model of induction, which suggests four stages: prepara-

tion, encounter, adjustment and stabilisation and argue that good induction includes the

provision of useful information to staff both before and when they arrive in post, the

provision of support for survival in the early stages and feedback on their teaching.

Janet Draper, Fiona Christie and Jim O'Brien discuss a new probation arrangement

for teachers in Scotland, in the form of a new induction scheme, which saw new

teachers entitled to a one year training post with a 70% workload, 30% of working

time for professional development and 10% of an experienced teacher's time for sup-

port, but with a training grade salary and the imperative to meet the Standard for Full

Registration (SFR) by the end of the first year. The chapter explores the experiences

of beginning teachers drawing on data collected by interview and questionnaire from

the teachers themselves, their mentors, induction managers and employers.

SECTION FIVE: CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT OF

TEACHERS: THE CHALLENGE TO CHANGE

Levin and Rock (2003, p. 135) argue:

Recent scholarship on professional development for teachers calls for

change. According to Sparks and Hirsh (1997), it is time to find ways to

move beyond the dominant training-focused models of professional devel-

opment to modes that support learner-centered views of teaching.

Lieberman (1995) characterized effective professional development as that

which is grounded in inquiry, reflection, and participant driven experimen-

tation, naming the role of teacher-researcher as an appropriate means.

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

The movement towards developing professional learning communities and networks

of teachers and others working together has become a major force in changing what

happens in schools. Lieberman (2000, p. 221) argues:

Educational reform networks are particularly well suited to making use

of new technology and institutional arrangements. By their very nature,

they are flexible, borderless, and innovative; they are able to create

collaborative environments, focus their efforts, and develop agendas that

grow and change with their participants.

This has changed the interactions that teachers have with each other and has resulted, in

many cases, in much more cross fertilization of what teachers do. Meier (1992, p. 602)

argues:

At the very least, one must imagine schools in which teachers are in

frequent conversation with each other about their work, have easy and

necessary access to each other's classrooms, take it for granted that they

should comment on each other's work, and have the time to develop

common standards for student work.

This section looks at some strategies used by teacher education institutions to foster

the further development of teachers after they have completed their initial training.

Marion Meiers argues that evaluation of teacher professional development can

operate on a number of levels. At one level, data can be gathered on the participants,

and on their general satisfaction with a professional development program or series

of activities. Other levels of evaluation can focus on the connections between the

professional development experience and changes to teachers'professional knowledge.

In turn, the connections between enhanced professional knowledge and teaching prac-

tices that lead to enhanced learning opportunities for students can be investigated.

Then, Cheng May Hung, Au Kit Oi, Pang King Chee and Cheung Lai Man discuss

a project that aims to develop knowledge on the concept of, and factors helping and

hindering, teacher success. It considers the ways in which teacher success is related

to teacher development, and whether appropriate professional development in the

course of a teacher's career can facilitate teacher success.

Ivan Reid, Kevin Brain and Louise Comerford Boyes review the British govern-

ment's initiative to set up Networked Learning Communities [NLCs], consisting of

groups of schools, within the broader current educational policies of England. Their

chapter identifies the role played by the National College of School Leadership in

this process, explores the extent to which the initiative's objectives are being reached

and assesses the effects on the teachers and schools involved.

Charles Podhorsky and Douglas Fisher argue that student achievement in the

United States has continued to decline over the past decade and that national and

state boards of education have attempted to remedy this problem by increasing

school accountability measures. However, instead of creating programs which focus

on improving the practice of teaching and learning, recent reform efforts have

focused on developing a 'teacher proof' curriculum. While these strategies may provide

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

an opportunity for better curriculum alignment, they do not get at the core of student

failure, ineffective instructional practices.

Michael Aiello and Kevin Watson's chapter examines the possibility of creating an

approach to continuous professional development which combines institutional

development and the needs of the individual teacher as a learner and professional.

It examines a deliberate strategy of moving from action research to action learning,

and from learning communities to a learning organization. The chapter suggests that

the key element is the ongoing commitment and response to learning by the principal.

Then Ruth Gorinski argues that Maori students in compulsory schooling have histor-

ically performed less well than their non-Maori counterparts and that teachers in main-

stream schooling contexts have lower expectations of Maori students, fail to effectively

identify or reflect on how their practice impacts on the educational experiences of these

students, and have limited support to address these particular issues. There is an urgent

need to provide innovative and effective professional development for teachers that is

both supportive and enabling, to reverse the historical trends of Maori student under-

achievement. Findings from a New Zealand pilot study suggest that professional devel-

opment that is contextualised within practice settings is a critical success factor in

determining teachers' receptivity to modification and development of their practice.

In the next chapter, Jill Smith discusses the situation where Maori, the indigenous

people of New Zealand, are given protection of their taonga (treasures) by the Treaty

of Waitangi (1840). Under the Treaty all students are required to honour its principles

and become cognisant with Maori art and culture. The majority of art teachers in

New Zealand schools are European/Pakeha, however, thereby creating a dilemma on

how to fulfil the bicultural obligations. This chapter focuses on the problems faced by

non-indigenous art teachers; the questions raised about their roles and rights in

addressing indigenous knowledge; and the strategies used by a non-indigenous

teacher educator to mentor and empower them to gain the requisite knowledge and

understanding to work in the field with confidence, sensitivity and integrity.

Harrison Tse considers how the ability to reflect affects the professional development

of practicing teachers. This chapter reports on the appropriateness of linking two learn-

ing theories, the Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb, 1985) and the Transformative

Learning Theory (Mezirow, 1991), together. It reports on an instrument designed for

assessing teachers' reflective thinking and practice.

Amy Yip analyses and reports on the action processes of a Hong Kong second-

ary school adopting a multidisciplinary project approach where practitioners

problematised and reconstructed habitual practices in a cyclical mode where they

'plan-act-observe-reflect' on their daily professional experience. Teachers' tacit

knowledge had a significant impact on early identification of problems and suggest-

ing solutions to ensure the smooth running of the curriculum. The author argues that

it is time for university academics or experienced researchers to help teachers publi-

cize the 'tacit' to enrich the knowledge base for teaching and learning.

Margaret Taplin, Dorothy Ng Fung Ping and Huang Fuqian describe aspects of

teachers' professional growth during a two-year professional development program

in Guandong, China. The project was a part of national curriculum reform in

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

Mainland China, one component of which was to integrate values education across

the curriculum while simultaneously helping teachers to adopt current theories of

learning and teaching about values education.

Danjun Ying discusses the global discourse on how teachers can be supported in

their efforts to become professional learners, and be better prepared for their new

roles as facilitators and co-learners to promote student life-long learning. It considers

a task-based learning curriculum innovation, called Research-based learning,

Integrated curriculum, Community learning, and Humanistic outcomes (RICH), first

developed in 1997. The aim of RICH is to help students to become autonomous life-

long learners with critical thinking skills, open-mindedness, creativity, and a sense of

responsibility.

SECTION SIX: THE REFLECTIVE

PRACTITIONER: THE WAY FORWARD

In recent times there has been call for change in teacher education in ways that will

promote teachers being much more reflective in their practice (Jones, 1998;

Korthagen and Kessels, 1999; Ball, 2000; Wise and Leibbrand, 2001). Korthagen and

Kessels (1999, p. 4), argue teacher education programs need to link theory and

practice and "to integrate the two in such a way that it leads to integration within the

teacher". Similarly, Ball (2000, p. 244) maintains "We must understand better the

work that teachers do and analyze the role played by content knowledge in that

work". The importance of teachers engaging in reflective practice is recognized by

numerous researchers (Schön, 1983; Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 1999; Ball, 2000).

Loughran, (2002, p. 33) argues:

… for reflection to genuinely be a lens into the world of practice, it is

important that the nature of reflection be identified in such a way as to

offer ways of questioning taken-for-granted assumptions and encouraging

one to see his or her practice through others' eyes.

The best way for teachers to improve what they do is for them to reflect on their practice

and work with other teachers to help them understand what is needed for high

achievement. However, Cochran-Smith argues that the current standards movement,

which reduces the role of a teacher to the implementation of a few narrowly focused

outcomes, has a negative effect of this activity:

The image of teachers as professionals who learn from practice and

document the effect of their teaching on students'learning is a clear part

of the discourse of the new teacher education. Experienced as well as

prospective teachers are expected to function as reflective practitioners,

work collaboratively in learning communities, and demonstrate that

their teaching leads to increased student achievement. But, a narrow

interpretation of higher standards - and one that is lurking beneath

the surface of the discourse that heralds the paradigm shift in teacher

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

education from "inputs to outputs"- threatens the idea of teaching for

change.

(Cochran-Smith, 2001b, p. 180)

This section considers what it means to be a reflective practitioner and what teacher

education programs do to promote reflection on practice as part of their programs,

but also how they might support practising teachers to develop this approach to the

task at hand. First, Neil Hooley considers a philosophical framework for thinking

about knowledge production that may consider human ideas and understanding

as emerging from empirical, hermeneutic, or critical investigations. Knowledge

production, through participatory research, is non-neutral and generalisable but must

always be refined and validated through practice and participation. A central aspect

of participatory research is the written documentation of experience and reflection on

how the research process itself challenges personal ideas and practices, so that

research outcomes involve not only new knowledge but changes to the researchers

themselves.

Then, Alex Moore considers the role and importance of self-understanding in the

development of teachers' professional learning and development. With reference to

Anna Freud's imperative that teachers have a duty to 'understand themselves' if they

are to operate most effectively in the interests of their students, the chapter argues

that at the same time as teachers are being encouraged, through regimes of 'compe-

tence' and 'reflection', to prioritise the professional self in taking responsibility for

their own professional development, they are simultaneously being denied opportu-

nities and encouragement to prioritise the self in ways that may help them to under-

stand fully what happens in the classroom. The chapter gives consideration to the

many different 'voices – both 'external' and 'internal' – that tell the practitioner what

it means to be a successful and appropriate practitioner and concludes with an argu-

ment that teachers should not be afraid or ashamed of revisiting past experience as a

way of understanding present feelings.

John Loughran examines how teachers are leaders in the construction of knowledge

about practice in ways that are particular to both their needs and actions in enhancing

understanding of teaching and learning. The work of teacher researchers offers insights

into classroom practice that need to be better understood in the development of teacher

knowledge in meaningful ways for the profession. The chapter argues that a 'teacher as

researcher' stance has important implications for both policy and practice.

Christopher Day discusses transitions in the operational definitions of profession-

alism over the last 20 years. As a consequence of changes in the control of curriculum

and assessment and increased measures of public accountability, teachers now work

within cultures in which their careers are dependent upon external definitions of

quality, progress and achievement. He argues that, although many experienced teachers

have maintained their identities, the pressure on these and younger colleagues is

to comply with competency based agendas. In such cultures, attention to teachers'

identities – central to sustaining motivation, efficacy, commitment, job satisfaction

and effectiveness – has been limited.

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

Finally, Eileen Honan uses the four resources literacy model, developed by Peter

Freebody and Allan Luke, as a framework for teachers to use to investigate their

current literacy teaching practices. The chapter investigates how teachers could use

the four resources model as a 'map of possible practices'. The chapter also considers

how the four resources model provides a framework for research where teachers are

seen as agents and active participants in the project rather than passive subjects to be

studied by a researcher.

SECTION SEVEN: THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY:

TOOL OF THE TRADE OR THE TERROR FOR TEACHERS?

The last two decades have seen a dramatic increase in the use of learning tech-

nologies of various kinds. The old image of the teacher with a piece of chalk and

a few text books is now well in the past. The introduction of computer technology

in particular finds teachers using powerpoints for their classes, accessing knowl-

edge from all around the world via the world-wide-web, being emailed by students

at all hours of the day and night and accessing vast databases to enter their data

related to student progress are all part and parcel of the teaching day. This has

brought with it huge implications for teacher educators who need to be ahead of

the game if they are to provide their students with the best understanding of how

these activities might be used. This is challenging for many teacher educators who

may have been comfortable with the old way of doing things and now find many

of their students well in advance of their own knowledge as well. Otero et al .

(2005, p. 8) argue:

This implies that university faculty in teacher education programs

must become proficient at technology use and must come to under-

stand content-specific, pedagogical uses of technology for their own

instruction.

The US National Research Council (1999, p. 218) made the case for the introduction

of computer-based technologies:

What has not yet been fully understood is that computer-based technologies

can be powerful pedagogical tools – not just rich sources of information,

but also extensions of human capabilities and contexts for social inter-

actions supporting learning. The process of using technology to improve

learning is never solely a technical matter, concerned only with properties

of educational hardware and software. Like a textbook or any other

cultural object, technology resources for education – whether a software

science simulation or an interactive reading exercise – function in a

social environment, mediated by learning conversations with peers and

teachers.

However, not everyone accepts that the current move towards a new technology of

teaching and learning is heading in the right direction. Robertson (2003, p. 280)

TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

argues that:

Teachers are vulnerable to the technopositivist ideology that perpetuates

a naive faith in the "promises" of technology. Most teachers have been

denied opportunities to explore the motives, power, rewards, and sanctions

associated with the unscrupulous marketing of information and commu-

nications technology (ICT) and tend to be uninformed about the research

that has failed to find a positive relationship between ICT use and student

achievement. They remain unaware of the efforts to disguise how devo-

tion to technology necessarily entails retrofitting the purposes and practices

of education.

Russell et al . (2003, p. 297) suggest the large expenditures on technology have not

delivered the level of use that the expenditure had warranted.

Despite these large expenditures, increased access, and nearly universal

use by school-age children and their teachers, several observers have

questioned the extent to which technology is affecting teaching and

learning. For example, Stoll (1999) and Healy (1998) have criticized

investments in educational technologies, arguing that there is little evi-

dence they affect teaching and learning in a positive way. They, in fact,

asserted that computer use may be harming children and their learning.

More recently, Cuban (2001) argued that computers have been oversold

as a vehicle for reforming educational practices and are generally

underused as an instructional tool by teachers at all levels of education.

This section seeks to find ways in which the technology now available to teachers and

teacher educators can be used to improve practice and communications between the

stakeholders in the teacher education process. First, Glenn Russell, and Glenn Finger

argue that Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education are linked

to the need for an urgent reconceptualisation of teacher education students' skills and

learning experiences. Future teachers will require skills not currently emphasized in

many teacher education programs, and some traditional skills will be regarded as less

important. They discuss the implications for teacher education of developments includ-

ing access to online services, changing pedagogical practices, and the emergence of

screen-based literacies, and argue that changes must be introduced if teacher education

courses are to continue to be relevant in the twenty-first century.

Paul Gathercoal, Judith Crowe, Silva Karayan and Thomas McCambridge discuss

implementing a webfolio system consisting of teacher assignments, learning

resources, student artifacts, mentor feedback, and curriculum standards for K-12 partner

schools. This chapter shares implementation strategies currently being employed to

develop the web-based electronic portfolio system to provide an understanding in

how K-12 web-based portfolio systems facilitate assessment, evaluation and report-

ing in a single web portal.

Then, Muriel Wells identifies and explores the extent and impact of educational

technology in the context of collaborative online projects in a global educational

TEACHER EDUCATION IN A NEW MILLENNIUM

community. There are currently a wide range of local and international collaborative

online projects and the chapter describes case study projects selected for their potential

to provide new perspectives on the role of technology in education and its potential

impact on teaching and learning.

Manjula Waniganayake, Susan Wilks and Ron Linser describe an interactive tool

that attempts to promote undergraduate pre-service students' critical thinking about

values and the role of a professional educator and then evaluates its usefulness in the

field. The tool uses an on-line role play simulation which allowed them to experience

both cognitive and affective domains of interpersonal interactions.

Christine Gardner and John Williamson discuss a project that enables students'

practicum experiences to provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to learn

about teaching through undertaking blocks of practical experience ranging from a

few weeks to more than two months in school settings under the supervision of a

class teacher. WebCT was used to support pre-service teachers during their practicum

or "School Experience" placements and was used to seek feedback from the pre-

service teachers prior to, during, and at the completion of their placements. This

offered the potential to influence further development of strategies to encourage a

higher level of pre-service teacher reflection on their experiences and the capacity to

inform the work of university-based and school-based teacher educators.

Finally, Glenn Russell and Geoff Romeo examine pre-service teachers' percep-

tions of Information and Communications Technology in Education through a survey

of first-year student teachers. A contextual discussion of the tension between neces-

sary computer skills and the understandings that teachers need to use computers in

classrooms provides a perspective for this examination. The surveyed group reported

strong support for the future use of computers in school education, mixed results for

ways in which teaching in schools would change, and satisfaction with most elements

of their course.

CONCLUSION

Finally, Richard Bates and Tony Townsend provide an analysis of the issues

identified in each of the chapters and draw conclusions from them. They provide a

consideration of the policies, programs and practices that may need to be developed

in order for teacher educators to respond to the pressures they are currently facing

and to deliver the level of quality that is being demanded by the rapidly changing

world in which we live.

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TONY TOWNSEND AND RICHARD BATES

INTRODUCTION

The signposts of globalization are everywhere … Starbucks, McDonalds and the

Hyatt. The media express public concerns about this interconnectedness through

heated arguments about regional security and tough debates on free trade and its impact

on everything from cattle to indigenous culture. Indeed, if viruses do not convince us

globalization skeptics of the reality of our intimate and intense interconnectedness,

then nothing will. Let me make explicit three personal theses that frame this chapter:

●that the effect of globalization has not only been in the economic domain, but also

on the social and cultural content of nation states, within and outside the develop-

ing world. Whole societies and cultures are being formatted on a globalised grid

that has transformed everything from music, art and culture to curriculum, peda-

gogy and assessment.

●that the impact of globalization on education and educators remains poorly under-

stood and rarely questioned; this book is a welcome respite from the relative

silence on the impacts of globalization on education, especially in the developing

world. There is much rhetoric and abstraction, and important theoretical advances,

but very little 'on-the-ground' descriptions and explanations of how globalization

impacts on teachers and teaching in different contexts.

●that the most dangerous consequence of globalization is that it has established a

broad consensus not only about what kind of economy is desirable, but about what

education is for. This consensus holds that education is for economic productivity,

for technological advancement, for greater competition and market-share, for institu-

tional and learner performance measurement, and for regulation and accountability

to ensure that performance-driven economies and pedagogies are not only achieved,

but sustained. It is this consensus that this chapter wishes to challenge

In terms of education, globalization has redefined how we teach, what we teach,

where we teach, whom we teach – and even whether we teach.

●How we teach – in that new technologies have not only given teachers new tools

for the classroom that have created instant and powerful connectivities between

persons and ideas, across space and in real time, they also fundamentally alter our

notions of what it means to teach.

●What we teach – in that these powerful technologies are not culture free, but carry

with them very powerful cultural content pre-loaded in the cyberspace curriculum

and preset by transnational forces that – in ways still poorly understood – demand

sameness rather than separateness.

JONATHAN JANSEN

2. LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED

WORLD: THE LESSONS FROM SOUTH AFRICA

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 25–40.

●Where we teach – in that globalization, understood as the intensification of

economic and cultural interactions, means that the transfer of technologies and

expertise have brought transnational organizations into local education markets

through both physical and virtual connections across space.

●Whom we teach – in that the distribution of education is no longer limited to local

students but can simultaneously bring into play citizens of far-flung national

states into the same learning space at the same time.

●Whether we teach – in that technologies have not only changed the role of the

teacher, but in many cases made the traditional teaching roles redundant for many

educators.

This is the background context within which more specific arguments about learn-

ing and leadership in a globalized world might be pursued.

GLOBAL CONSENSUS AND COLLIDING DISCOURSES

At the Opening Ceremony of the 2003 International Council on Education for

Teaching Conference in Melbourne, Australia, there were two speakers, from the

same national context, presenting what appeared to be totally different visions of what

education is for. In short, there were two discourses discernible, one from a prominent

politician and another from an indigenous community leader:

●From the politician, there were words like performance, outcomes and standards;

from the indigenous leader, there were words like community, respect and

engagement.

●From the politician, there were words about the necessity for benchmarks, frame-

works and measurement; from the indigenous leader, there were words about the

value of consultation, personal wellbeing, and dignity.

●From the politician there was much about testing; from the local leader, about

trust.

●From one, about heads; from the other, about hearts.

●From the parliamentarian, about individuals; from the communitarian, about family.

●From the local politician, about accountability; from the local leader, about

reciprocity.

The first voice represents the powerful global consensus about what education is for;

the second voice represents the protesting minority voice that is heard more and more

in the world – often in dramatic confrontations led by the so-called anti-globalization

lobby. It is very important to open-up space for this challenge to consensus, or we

risk losing much that has been struggled for in terms of democratic education, com-

munity ethos, and human affirmation – terms of struggle that have become much

more critical in the light of the dangerous world into which powerful political and

economic coalitions have thrust all of us.

The example of South Africa in the past decade, since the quiet revolution that saw

the end to apartheid, may be instructive as a means for observing how the dominant

cultures react to the cries from below. Against expectation, the transition to a non-

racial schooling system in South Africa proceeded without much trauma. There were

JONATHAN JANSEN

no street-level confrontations of the order of Little Rock, Arkansas, in the United

States or dramatic implosions of the school system as a result of the change of

government and policy with respect to the deracialisation of education. To be sure,

there were numerous little (and some larger) incidents well-publicised through the

media, drawing attention to tensions and difficulties in certain white schools accom-

modating black students and there were legal challenges to racial integration and

race-related decisions in schools. That incidents such as these occurred is of course

to be expected after 300 years of colonialism and 40 years of formalised apartheid.

What is more striking, however, is that the scale, scope and intensity of racial

confrontation were in fact so limited across South Africa's 29,000 schools.

RACE, DEMOCRACY AND TRANSITION

There are several possible reasons for the relative ease of racial desegregation in South

African schools. First, the political climate of toenadering (coming together for the

purposes of reconciliation) and the negotiated terms of the transition created conditions

for peaceful resolution of the race question in school and society. Second, the positive

track-record of desegregation in especially private or independent schools had long

been established and these schools demonstrated how such decisions could in fact be

made without trauma or incident. It is important to note in this regard that South Africa

has a long tradition of black students in white schools. Third, the terms of desegrega-

tion were and still remain fully under the control of individual schools, through their

school governing bodies, and so very few schools allowed black students – let alone

black teachers – to dominate or outnumber their white counterparts.

However, it would be a mistake of judgment and analysis to only focus attention on

what is visible, dramatic and well-publicised in making an assessment of how far

South Africa has come with respect to race, democracy and education since 1994.

Every day, there are hundreds of little incidents, unseen and unrecorded, that

'happen' to younger and older students because of race. There is a formidable

research literature showing that in South African schools, the grouping of children,

the dominant assessment practices, the learner preferences of the teacher, the display

of cultural symbols, the organisation of religious symbols, the scope of awards and

rewards, and the decisions of 'who teaches what' are all organised in ways that show

preference based on race (as well as social class, religion and gender).

When researchers run the now familiar focus group interviews among high school

students on the subject of race, three things become evident: the language of racial

accusation, the language of social alienation, and the language of group anger. Such

students however have the means for understanding what is happening to them, and

for articulating these experiences in direct and expressive terms. Yet the real damage

might be done in primary schools, where young children might not grasp as easily the

fact that grouping decisions or cynical language or pedagogical neglect might in fact

be commentaries on difference and judgments of race.

But there remains a formidable obstacle to corrective action in this kind of

environment. Teachers, when approached on the subject of race and identity in their

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

classrooms, would invariably make the claim that "we see children, not colour" and

that is exactly where the problem lies: a lack of consciousness, very often, of the

ways in which schools are organised and how teaching is conveyed that in fact hold

direct consequences for learners, identity and transformation. Unfortunately, these

dilemmas of race are not at all restricted to the school. Undergraduate students at

former white universities are deeply alienated from each other. At a typical Afrikaans

university, it is an alienation that on the surface appears to be about language, about

symbols, and about culture. Those are indeed the outward expressions of racial alien-

ation on campuses. But it goes much deeper.

It is important, however, not to rush to judgment of the students, and try to make

sense of their own racial geographies that allow such unnatural levels of alienation

and hostility among black and white youth. A concentrated arena in which to

observe these hostilities are the university residences. White Afrikaans students,

whether from deep rural areas and farming communities, or from all-white city

schools, suddenly make their very first contact with black people – on an equal

footing; that is, not as labourers in their households or employees of their families.

Suddenly, they are thrown into an environment in which institutions immediately

expect mutual respect and noble exchange based on common enterprise i.e., univer-

sity education. Black students, on the other hand, come from a more diverse set of

experiences. Those from rural areas and who attended all-Black schools find the

environment alienating and hostile in the extreme. Those who have experiences of

desegregated English schools, find the Afrikaans university environment confusing.

Having made friends with white students in English high schools, they find the

hostile reception among white university students to be unfamiliar, alienating and

provocative.

The principals of Afrikaans-medium white high schools insistence on Afrikaans

exclusive schools effectively rules out access for black students. The social conse-

quences for white students are devastating – it means that these white school students

would have missed out on the one crucial form of learning that will determine their

life chances in a post-apartheid society i.e., learning to live together.

In this regard the four pillars of learning advanced by the Delores Report on

Education for the 21st century (1996), is most appropriate: namely learning to know;

learning to do; learning to live together; and learning to be. White South African

schools do an excellent job of the first (knowing), a reasonable job of the second

(doing) and a lousy job of the third (living together).

The students, however, increasingly make judgments based on self-interest that

begin to erode these traditional markers of identity. The most dramatic demographic

shift lies not in the growing number of black students but in the growing number of

students who prefer their instruction in English (voorkeurtaal). This number includes

larger and larger numbers of Afrikaans mother-tongue speakers. The reason for this

language drift is simple: most white students spend periods of their lives in Europe

and elsewhere in the English-speaking world, and have made the reasonable calcula-

tion that competence in English is a critical asset whether for purposes of permanent

or temporary migration beyond South Africa's borders.

JONATHAN JANSEN

Unfortunately, the softening of attitudes towards English in a stubbornly Afrikaans

environment does not correlate with a softening of attitudes towards black students –

and this is a crucial point of observation, since in such contexts English is taken as

the neutral language of communication between black and white members of the

institution. Black students, on the other hand, also have very firm ideas about white-

ness. It would be a mistake to portray the experiences of black students in former

white institutions as akin to passive victims of racial aggression. Black students have

firm views about Afrikaans, are deeply suspicious of white motives and behaviours,

and remain resolutely bound within racialised patterns of social interaction.

WORKING AGAINST THE GRAIN

It would not be fair, though, to ignore those schools and individuals who work against

the grain; nor is it wise to overlook those cases which contain the germ of innovation

and resilience for broader application in the education system.

One observation is that young women students make the transition much easier

than their male counterparts. It is simply an observation, and requires much more

robust empirical inquiry. But it does appear that men bring a certain muscularity to

their relationships with each other which is not detected among women students.

First-year women students had within six months made very close friends within

their group, across racial lines, and they were, on own initiative, creating opportunities

for learning each others' languages! To be sure, they also record the unease of first

contact and the difficulty of the initial approach beyond the comforts of their familiar

"groups." But what was fascinating was the speed with which they arrived at this point.

A recent study involves three high schools that, despite their conservative histories,

have created significant levels of racial desegregation without high levels of white

flight. These schools, named after former apartheid presidents and prime ministers

(JG Strijdom, General Smuts and CR Swart), have received national recognition

and even rewards for what our research team calls "exceptional patterns of racial inte-

gration." It is too early in this research to begin to make firm claims about the reasons

why these schools have been able to make such progress 'against the grain.'However,

some hypotheses include the power of leadership, the pragmatism of Afrikaans

communities and the working class character of the schools. Where options are limited,

white schools are more likely to accept the demand from black students for access to

what is perceived to be better managed and better resourced school environments.

The single most important observation that can be made about race and schooling

after ten years is the following: that schools (and indeed universities) have been much

more successful at meeting the demand for racial desegregation than achieving the

ideal of social integration. It is very important not to confuse these two constructs:

racial desegregation was, in many schools, a relatively easy accomplishment. In the

case of universities, both legislative demand and new funding incentives have made

racial desegregation a survival imperative if not a social justice response.

What policy has not conceived or practice revealed, is the kind of methodologies

that could create within institutions the kind of social interactions that would build a

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

broader sense of citizenship, compassion and community; or in other words, "learning

to live together."

RACIAL DESEGREGATION VERSUS SOCIAL INTEGRATION

What initial observations suggest is that schools and universities struggle with

migration towards higher levels of integration. The first level, easily achieved, is

racial desegregation; the second level is staffing integration; the third level is

curriculum integration; and the fourth level is institutional culture integration.

It has been, as repeatedly stated, easier to open the Freedom Charter's doors of

learning. What happens behind those doors is infinitely more complex. The Achilles

heel of white schools has not been accommodating some black students in former

white classrooms; it is having black teachers in the same space. That is why most

(though certainly not all) of the so-called liberal, white English-speaking schools

have made so little progress on this subject. It has to do with deeply ingrained,

racialised notions of white competence and black incompetence. In this context,

incoming black teachers are already framed in ways that disempower them and the

same nurturing and accommodation that is so readily made for novice white teachers

seldom apply to novice black teachers.

It has even been more difficult to achieve a sense of racial justice within the school

curriculum. This is a subject crying out for sustained empirical investigation – to

what extent has the curriculum content and practices of teachers actually changed

since 1994? For all the claims of an overarching curriculum framework, our research

shows that teachers in especially the more established and privileged schools exercise

considerable autonomy over how and what they teach. That autonomy means that few

history teachers in such schools have, for example, allocated the space or depth to

teaching a broader sense of African history that would affirm the rich diversity of

cultural and political experiences represented within the student body. The so-called

"great curriculum debate" has very little to do with the technicalities of curriculum

design or delivery and everything to do with what counted as worthwhile knowledge

on Africa in institutions whose identity unmistakeably bears the deep imprint of the

colonial past.

And the last frontier in the quest for social integration and non-racial community

in former white institutions will always be this hard-to-define phenomenon called

"institutional culture." It is not, for now, organisational culture or institutional climate

that is in question. It (institutional culture) is something different, and might be

simply defined as how an institution describes "the way we do things around here."

Useful, but how exactly does institutional culture present itself within university or

school life?

DECODING INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE

It has to do with whose portraits and paintings appear in the corridors; it has to do

with what collections dominate the library; it has to do with who dominates the

JONATHAN JANSEN

school governing bodies, and who gets relegated to the status of observers; it has to

do with whose liturgy is represented in the school assembly, and whose is excluded;

it has to do with both the complexion and repertoire of the school or university choir;

it has to do with who continues to gain access to institutional contracts, and who

remains marginalized; it has to do with whose language dominates a public meeting

or event, and whose is excluded; it has to do with the kinds of sporting codes a school

allows on its grounds, and what is excluded; it has to do with the kinds of public

friendships that teachers and leaders of schools model, and that young people invari-

ably witness; it has to do with the complexion of who works in the school's secretarial

pool and the complexion of those who work cleaning the swimming pool; it has to do

with the ways in which women are constructed in social relations on the school

grounds or campus; it has to do with who sits together in the staff-room, and who sits

somewhere else; it has to do with who gets called "Mr" and who, irrespective of age,

is simply called "Klaas;" it has to do with the content of what appears on the emblem

of the institution; it has to do with the content of school songs, the metaphors for talking

about others; and it has to do with the ways in which schools or universities talk about

the future.

With regard to the latter point, discourses about the future can have detrimental

effects on institutional cultures and the sense an institution has about its role and

relevance in a democracy. Carrying self-defeating and negative discourses about

education through schools and classrooms can only construct an institutional culture

in which the final victim is hope.

It is in this domain of democratisation and institutional cultures, that education

institutions fail to include, accommodate and affirm racial diversity and difference,

and community and commonality. It is in this domain where the assault on the cultural

senses of incoming black students conveys powerful messages of who the institution

is for. Symbols matter.

Our research team found the concept of "home" to constitute perhaps the most

telling expression of how students feel in relation to former white institutions. A

research paper, prepared by Lionel Thaver (2005) from the University of the Western

Cape, unpacks the potential and dilemmas of this concept for understanding inclu-

sion and exclusion for those who inhabit higher education institutions. In the end, the

real test of whether South African institutions have achieved inclusive institutional

cultures might well be the extent to which black and white students "feel at home"

within universities.

It would be naive however to believe that such constructions of power within educa-

tion do not find a corresponding resonance and reinforcing substance from what hap-

pens in the broader society. Among families, political parties, religious organisations,

sporting associations and in business communities, essentialist views of racial iden-

tity retain a deep meaning within everyday life. This constitutes a major obstacle to

resolving the fiction about essential racial identities that lie at the root of what is

brought into school. Such notions of firm and inflexible apartheid categories are

continually reinforced through bureaucracy, including in powerful instruments such

as the national census and the employment equity schedules.

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

IDENTIFYING AND LEVERAGING 'POINTS OF POWER'

But the problem of redressing racial divisions in education cannot proceed without

identifying the specific points of power that sustain the status quo in schools and in

universities. Here are some examples of these 'points of power'; there are many others

such points in the power constellations of educational institutions.

In schools the most crucial 'point of power'is the school governing body (SGB). This

is the entity that dictates the pace, content and direction of change (or non-change).

What is often observed is that even when black student numbers increase to visible

or even majority membership of the registration total, white parents continue to

dominate this powerful decision-making body in a school. It is this body that decides

which teachers to appoint, how and for how long to appoint them, and under what

conditions of service. Given the crucial decisions that such a body is empowered to

make, it is understandable therefore that much of the political machinations in and

around the SGB can be seen when vacancies become available and the school

schemes to retain white membership or at least white majority membership of such

an institution. The result is seldom in doubt. Never has school leadership stood up

and specifically set the goal that it wishes to create a more diverse school governing

body, that not only acknowledges the growing diversity of the student body (a low-level

claim) but can bring experiences and insights into the school governance that may

not reside with its traditional leadership (a high-level claim).

This is a point of power that can be challenged and changed in the interest of

creating a more diverse school leadership, and here black parents might be seen as

part of the problem. The failure to organise and coerce representation is not unfamiliar

to disenfranchised communities in South Africa. At the same time, recent research

gives cause for caution in making this claim without reservation. The parents in such

schools are often (not always) poor and less articulate in the dominant language

(often English) of these meetings; black parents are often located at considerable dis-

tance from the school, and less able therefore to participate in the lives of schools

situated in the suburbs of the traditional leadership of the SGB; black parents might

make a calculated decision not to become "disruptive", given the power stakes, since

this might jeopardise their continued access to the school; and yet other black parents

might, in view of the power calculus stacked against them, simply decide not to

challenge a perceived, impenetrable wall of privilege and authority. Whatever the rea-

sons for the lack of challenge, the SGB then continues to wield enormous power that

is unlikely to be changed through legislation or policy.

The equivalent 'point of power'in universities is not the university Council or even

its senior management when it comes to the racial patterning of institutional cultures

and appointments. It is the middle-level management of an institution, both in the

academic and the administrative divisions. It is readily observed that institutions

are able to create diversity and signal inclusive directions at the levels of senior man-

agement and at the levels of student admission. But the institutional culture is largely

carried in the locus of middle-level management. In higher education institutions,

therefore, these 'points of power'are much more distributed than in schools; but they

JONATHAN JANSEN

are also unevenly distributed and it is my contention that interventions should target

the middle-level establishment in order to leverage durable changes in culture, cur-

riculum and complexion.

It is the middle-level management that, in the academic sphere, decides on who

gets appointed into an academic department. The point is that deans and heads of

department are the effective gatekeepers of academic appointments, and no amount

of mission or vision-directedness by senior management or policy or legislative pos-

turing by government can change this simple fact; a different kind of intervention is

required.

It is also the middle level management, in the administrative sphere, that determines

the language of the signage that appears on campus; that determines the pace with

which new symbols or signs appear, if they appear at all, on the instruction of the sen-

ior management. It is the middle level management, especially in white universities

and technikons, that creatively and perniciously ensure that administrative labour

remains white and male in certain job occupations and white and female in others.

The mechanisms are relatively simple, and include the following: advertise in news-

papers that are largely read by white readership; convene private pre-selection (or

shortlisting) meetings that effectively exclude otherwise competent candidates; set

criteria for appointment that could only be met by those already familiar with the

institutional systems, automatically excluding 'outsiders' from first-time entry; load

the actual selection committees with like-minded and like-skinned individuals, and

ensure in this way that continuity is achieved; or grant only recommendation status

to a selection committee, and make the final decision on an appointment elsewhere

and beyond the scrutiny of a stakeholder-based committee.

There are of course many other examples that could be used to demonstrate how

authority functions at middle-level management in institutions, and why such points

of power should be identified and interrupted if South Africa is to move beyond the

sporadic outbursts of politicians about 'the lack of transformation' or the routine

defence of institutions about 'the lack of qualified candidates' or the unconvincing

rationalisation of black academics on the move about 'the lack of support.'

PARTICIPATION RECONSIDERED

What we perceive is a troubling set of questions about the value and efficacy of

participation in our young democracy. It is worth recalling that participation was the

touchstone of student struggles against apartheid education. The demand for demo-

cratic participation in education was one of those "non-negotiables" and it included

participation by all stakeholders in the affairs of a school. School governing bodies

were the embodiment of this vision forged in struggle. In universities, the broad

management forums and now the 'institutional forums' became the symbol of this

quest to broaden and deepen stakeholder participation in higher education institutions.

But participation has proven to be much more complex, contorted and contested

than what the liberation slogans seemed to suggest. Once the demand for formal

participation had been met, it was gradually realised that policy intentions fell far

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

short of practical outcomes; in other words, there was a growing recognition of the

need to problematise participation in the realm of educational practice.

In schools, there is abundant evidence that participation is a function of social

class and cultural capital within former white schools. As already mentioned, school

governing bodies are less sites of contestation over democratic values than they are

sites of domination by white parents who claim and hold ownership of the school's

ideological and material cultures. Black parents, outside of the small but growing

elite, do not have the fluency of English, the familiarity of setting, the networks of

influence or the confidence of person to make the kinds of demands on schools in

which they are only recent (and often grateful) entrants into this well-organised

culture. There are indeed real threats to aggressive participation; it is not uncommon,

for example, for a white parent to pay for and enable access for the child or children

of her domestic worker to the same school attended by the children of the white

parent. Under such circumstances, it is understandable that challenge to this dominant

culture would come at a price that most black parents, in such a case, would find to

constitute an unacceptable risk.

In black schools, research also points to non-participation by black parents even

when there is relatively uncontested space for school ownership and development. The

simplistic policy response to this observation is 'capacity building'and yet the problem

of non-participation runs much deeper than can be resolved by occasional workshops

or seminars sponsored by provincial or national government. The assumption, there-

fore, that the demand for democratic participation in schools would be taken up by

willing and enthusiastic parents simply did not hold in the post-apartheid context.

In higher education institutions, participation has also proved to run into problems

of power and asymmetries of power that few could have anticipated during the heady

days of the education struggle. The levelling assumptions that were assumed to come

through stakeholder politics did not take account of the reassertion of institutional

power on new terms in the post-1994 period. No doubt the national swing towards

fiscal austerity under South Africa's conservative macroeconomic strategy, and to

which managerialism was the institutional response, changed the terms under which

universities engaged with and understood their responsibilities towards stakeholders.

This 'new managerialism' was expressed through centralised decision-making, dra-

matic cuts in institutional budgets, the retrenchment of staff, and the creation of an

entirely different campus climate in which accountability trumped autonomy, quality

assurance replaced trust, and surveillance displaced self-management in higher edu-

cation institutions. It demonstrates that participation needs to be problematised, and

that participation is a necessary but not sufficient condition for achieving deep,

meaningful and sustainable changes in the lives of schools as critical sites for the

expression of our democratic ideals.

THE WAY FORWARD

What does this mean for leadership? What, especially, does this mean for leadership

under conditions of social transition? It is important in this respect to approach the

JONATHAN JANSEN

transformation of educational institutions with a strong sense of sobriety. On the one

hand, leadership matters, and the research on this subject is unequivocal. At the same

time, leadership in the context of a negotiated transition is a constant struggle to balance

binary tensions. Such tensions include the need to manage and indeed demonstrate a

balance between inclusion and correction; between affirmation and anger; between

accommodation and insertion; and between racial reconciliation and social justice.

Any leader approaching this context of transition without being completely destruc-

tive of persons and institutions will realise that an approach signalling a bulldozing

bravado is both misleading to external audiences and, in the end, self-defeating to

internal constituencies. Yet it is possible to harness the authority and integrity of lead-

ership in ways that advance the democratisation of universities and schools. Leadership

is a key 'point of power' in making democratic gains over time.

The formal arrangements for democratic education are clearly in place. The suite of

education policies produced since 1994 are impressive. Each policy, grounded in a pro-

gressive Constitution, makes commitments that signal profoundly democratic princi-

ples and practices for education. The base values of non-racism, non-sexism and

redress are visibly dispersed in any major government policy on education. The Values

in Education policy produced in the second five years commits learners to values that

include dignity, respect, honour, tolerance and criticality. The insertion of human rights

education into the curriculum, the promotion of citizenship education and the momen-

tous shifts towards inclusive education with respect to disabilities and religion educa-

tion are, without question, among the most liberating policy shifts in any democracy.

But policy is not practice, and while an impressive architecture exists for democratic

education, South Africa has a very long way to travel to make ideals concrete and

achievable within educational institutions. What is a matter of concern is that there

are no viable planning strategies within the Department of Education to advance

democratic education inside schools or universities in a sustainable and meaningful

way. In fact, one of the most distressing effects of recent state actions on democratic

cultures has been the emphasis on performance-based accountability systems

expressed in schools through the matriculation examinations and whole school eval-

uation; and in universities through a series of interconnected surveillance method-

ologies including the recent quality assurance audits. These systems do not separate

compliance accountability from institutional support; nor does policy compliance

deliver corresponding institutional support. What these new surveillance measures

have effectively done is to muzzle any serious or sustained attention in schools to

matters of deep learning about democratic principles and practices within the lives of

teachers, learners and community. The final grade of high school (Grade 12) has

become nothing more than a high-intensity and high-stakes testing environment in

which learners spend their time preparing for school-based, 'mock'and final matric-

ulation examinations in order to shield schools from governmental scrutiny and to

compete mindlessly for public recognition. In the process, education lost its soul.

It is also worth recording that the pursuit of social integration as a benchmark of

democratic education is likely to be limited in public school environments. For a long

time to come, the majority of black learners will receive their formal education

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

within the confines of all-black schools. In some ways, a disproportionate amount of

research and political energy has been spent discussing racial integration in a small

minority of former white schools. The task for policymakers, politicians and practi-

tioners, then, is to clarify how respect for difference can be built and sustained in

such schools, even if the point of departure for such intervention is not 'race.'

Despite what is done in schools, however, it is also worth noting that far too much

emphasis is being placed on schools to deliver democratic thinking and practice

when such institutions operate within nested communities that often signal contrary

values and behaviours. These nested communities include religious organisations,

sports clubs, domestic or family environments, and political parties or government.

Schools are in fact much more permeable to ideas, practices and behaviours from

these nested communities than often acknowledged. It cannot be reasonable, therefore,

to demand that schools change their behaviour when violence persists in townships,

when political leaders demean each other in an election year, when the state fails to

act in the face of regional chaos and corruption, and when life-prolonging drugs are

withheld from ordinary citizens.

Despite its obvious limits, schools remain the life-blood of this young democracy.

What happens in schools matters, and matters enormously; the choices young people

make depend crucially on their experiences of schooling, including the experience of

living with others or living with difference. And it is in schools and universities

where democratic practice must continue to be pursued. Much remains to be done.

The South African case provides some view of the impact of a global perspective,

but also some of the areas in which globalization may have little impact. If it had not

been for the pressure from the global community, the situation in South Africa may

never have changed, or not have changed as quickly. Yet, the responses to these

changes internally indicate that changing values and structures within particular

countries may be more difficult to achieve.

It could be argued that most of the current move towards globalization, of the econ-

omy and other institutions, has been launched by the same conservative forces that have

strived to prevent change in South Africa. The dominant, generally western, generally

white, generally male, leaders of the globalization movement seem to want to ensure that

their view of what the world should be like is adopted by other countries and people, and

they use their power, influence and financial strength to achieve this result. The same

principles are being applied in South Africa to maintain the status quo, as fitted neatly

into the perception of what those involved in globalization now want to achieve.

However, it would be ignoring a good deal of commonsense and sophisticated the-

oretical work if we simply trashed globalization as an all-powerful, totally destructive

force in the global economy and education. This is not the case, as the following

standpoints make clear:

globalization is not an unmitigated evil; Joseph Stiglitz recognized both the potential

as well as the drawbacks of globalization.

less powerful states are not simply victims of globalization forces; they are also

active participants in the process. In this sense, the research project is not only to

JONATHAN JANSEN

track the ways in which ideas travel, but also to understand why and how these ideas

are adopted within recipient states.

globalization is not ubiquitous in terms of its effects as there are large parts of the

globe still unaffected by globalization, even though their continued marginalization

might be a by-product of globalization processes

The next task, then, is to understand how globalization expresses itself within edu-

cation systems around the world.

GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON EDUCATION

Teaching might now be considered one of the global professions at two levels. First,

teachers now have to work with (and some even move to other countries to do it) stu-

dents from countries all around the world. Second, globalization has impacted on how

education is perceived, delivered and measured. These are some of the outcomes:

●there is a growing transnational migration of teachers; hardest hit being the devel-

oping countries e.g., South African teachers going to the UK. Once again, this

trend can be seen as positive in the sense that such international experience provides

cultural and social exposure and learning to young people who would other-

wise continue to live isolated, mono-cultural lives; furthermore, in the South African

case, many of these teachers return home after 1–3 years. On the other hand, the

costs of producing a teacher in a developing country is quite high if such talent is

immediately lost to a developed country – which actively recruits such young teach-

ers through agencies set-up for this purpose. For now, the pertinent point is that such

migration is a relatively new feature of education under globalisation.

●there is an eroding authority of national goals, priorities and policies in the face of

international private higher education institutions e.g., International universities

offering programs in many developing countries. The presence of international

institutions have one positive effect, and that is to provoke public universities out

of their complacency. But the effects on a newly emerging democracy, fresh out of

a long history under apartheid, are to limit and undermine the building of new

national institutions focused on the development goals of a country in search of

identity. But there are other problems.

●there is a declining quality of higher education services to developing country

students. Private higher education institutions lack world class libraries and labo-

ratories and other facilities that make for a quality university education; they also

tend to produce a very limited curriculum focused on business, commerce and

technology – the very media that strengthen the economic ties of a developing

country to a developed nation. In other words, the curriculum works within the

global consensus of what education is for and, in the process, provides a limited

experience to students in both educational and social terms.

●there is mindless copying of international policy trends, most powerfully expressed in

the phenomenon of policy borrowing. For example, Australia's main contribution to

South Africa has been outcomes based education (OBE) which was interpreted

locally to mean education sharply focused only on what is demonstrable and

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

assessable, thereby ignoring the full range of educational experiences and curriculum

content that count in the development of learners. Translated into the African context

with enormous complexities added-in, OBE became completely unworkable in the

impoverished settings of a developing country, and was radically revised about three

years ago – at great cost to the country. This pattern is duplicated all around the world.

●there is increasing pressure to participate in internationally set standards of

performance e.g., Education for All, the Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study (TIMSS), the Millennium Development Goals, the Program

for International Student Assessment (PISA), and the New Plan for African

Development. The emergence, across the globe, of performance-based pedago-

gies is both interesting but also highly problematic. This response is "the politics

of performance." It is becoming clear that states participate in such cross-national

displays of performance for reasons that are largely symbolic and in which being

part of this game lends credibility to marginal states, generates financial and other

incentives for such participation, and often leads to sanction by powerful agencies

if such participation is not forthcoming. Moreover, the emphasis on the external

features of national performance (such as individual test scores based largely on

cognitive performance) fails to deal with the deep-rooted problems of education

quality in developing countries that cannot be read off a standardized test score.

●there is an uncritical transfer of teacher surveillance methodologies under the guise

of accountability; the effects of which are to generate distrust and doubt within the

profession … especially when there is the lack of corresponding support/

development. There is an ethical question whether the state has the right to demand

accountability when the means for achieving official standards are not provided in

the first place. Accountability is important; but when teachers are required to

achieve pre-set standards without being afforded the means with which to achieve

them (especially in developing economies), then this demand should be questioned.

●there is a growing insertion of computer-based technologies into the classroom,

but without adequate attention as to how developing economies will in fact

address the digital divide; such technologies are necessary, but the fact is they

deepen inequalities already scarring the education landscape within (not only

between) nation states. The question that planners and policymakers, as well as

practitioners should pose when yet another series of technology-driven innova-

tions are introduced in poor countries is this: how will this intervention in fact deal

with the digital and information divide in our context?

In addition to posing such critical questions, what can teachers do in the face of the

challenges (and opportunities) posed by globalization?

TEACHING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

As suggested earlier, globalization represents both opportunities as well as concerns.

In this context, what could teachers do? Here are some suggestions:

●The importance of establishing critical values in the education system, in the face

of the relentless consensus being imposed by transnational forces on the end of

JONATHAN JANSEN

politics, on what education is for (but beware of a conservative restoration in this

vacuum). There is a need to speak of intellectual character, for example, rather

than values because of the real danger of co-option of such a concept to mean

other things. For example, in the apartheid context the discourse of values has his-

torically been associated with a narrow and conservative Calvinistic approach to

education rather than a broader, liberatory understanding of education and the

possibilities of change. One such commitment to develop among learners is critical

empathy with those who are different, or perceived to be different.

●The importance of re-asserting teacher autonomy in the face of the growing regu-

lation of the profession against internationally formatted ideas.

●The importance of struggling for curriculum space for addressing the critical prob-

lems of the day e.g., war and peace. The literal translation of curriculum prescription

and the slavish pursuit of 'learning outcomes' ignore the fact that teachers have

much more space for exercising curriculum authority 'behind the classroom door.'

●The importance of insisting on professional development as the basis for account-

ability demands on teachers.

●The importance of demonstrating teacher leadership in the face of the recentrali-

sation of education and political authority, and the loss of faith in governmental

authority, in adult authority.

This naturally leads to some actions for teacher education providers that will

enable teachers can become leaders of their profession, such as:

●demonstrating rather than professing preferred values in leadership practice (do

not preach values, do it); why should they believe us?

●shifting the training focus from what learners should be able to do, to what

teachers should be able to demonstrate (how do we empower inservice teachers to

be leaders);

●reorganizing the pre-service curriculum to reconceive teachers not simply as

'outcomes compliant pedagogues' but as leaders with a broader understanding (a

counter-globalization orientation) of what is worth learning in the first place

The most important thing to understand is that students learn much more about

values from what they observe that from what we could possibly teach in a dedicated

curriculum slot. And in a world being reshaped by terror, only extraordinary and

exemplary teacher leadership could affirm the possibilities of a different world,

based not so much on the globalising mission to produce sameness but grounded in

an enduring respect for our diversity.

REFERENCES

Delores, J. (1996) Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on

Education for the Twenty-first century. Paris, UNESCO.

Thaver, Lionel (2006) 'At Home.' Institutional Culture and High Education: Some Methodological

Considerations. Perspectives in Education , vol. 24, 1, pp. 15–27.

LEARNING AND LEADING IN A GLOBALIZED WORLD

INTRODUCTION

Long ago, professionalism was viewed as a defining characteristic of the industrial

society (Johnson, 1972, p. 9) which implies a power network. In this perspective,

Parry and Parry (in Ozga, 1981) define professionalism as a strategy to penetrate the

power network in a given context. Another perspective (Helsby, 1995; Hargreaves,

2000) sees its meaning as socially constructed and subject to geographical and

cultural differences in interpretation. It suggests that, traditionally, some aspects of

'professionalism' have connotations of status and financial gains. As a result, it has

been argued that professionals will attempt to interpret its characteristics according

to their own circumstances. Hargreaves (2000) sees professionalism as 'improving

quality and standards of practice'. In addition, Helsby (1999) asserts that profession-

alism implies not only special expertise but also altruistic concern to improve practice

constantly in the interest of the clients. In this respect, to be a professional entails

readiness to develop one's practice continuously for the well-being of clients. She

explains that 'professionalism' is seen as having personal and behavioural character-

istics of dedication, commitment and highly skilled practice.

Eraut (1994) follows Johnson (1972, 1984) and considers professionalism as an

'ideology'. McIntyre, in the preface of Eraut (1994), explains that professionalism as

an ideology 'embodies appealing values, in this case those of service, trustworthiness,

integrity, autonomy and reliable standards' (p. viii). Yet, he admits that 'it works in

the interest of certain groups – those occupations recognised as professions'. Sachs

(2000) sees it as a political project. Sockett (1993) argues for a moral base to profes-

sionalism. In this regard, he identifies four types of teacher professionalism, which

he describes as the central categories of one's work, namely: character, commitment,

subject knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge. He contends that professionalism is

about the 'quality of the practice'.

Recently (Nixon, 2001) has called for a reorientation of academic freedom, a com-

ponent of professionalism, to include a moral dimension where the professional's

'small world' encounters the wider community. Nixon sees professionalism 'in the

form of students to be taught, and wider constituencies to be addressed through

research and scholarly activity. That encounter is framed by a shared concern with

learning' (Nixon, 2001, p. 179).

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

3. THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN CULTURE,

TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM AND

TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

AT TIMES OF CHANGE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 41–52.

THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

EDUCATIONAL REFORM AND PROFESSIONALISM

Fullan (2001, p. 265) contends that 'teaching as a profession has not yet come of

age'. To do so, he argues, needs a reform of many issues, one of which is continuous

professional development. Indeed, teachers' roles have become more complex as a

result of repeated efforts of reform to make the education system responsive to

changes in the other systems. Accordingly, teachers' professional lives in schools

have changed in terms of control and accountability. Teachers also have to cope with

increased workloads and more complexity, unpredictability and uncertainty as a

result of repeated reform initiatives. Furthermore, teachers have to deal with pupils

of different needs, behaviour and backgrounds (Day, 1997). Within such a professional

climate, new trends of professionalism call for a more proactive role for teachers in

their professional development (Sachs, 2000). Teachers should behave as professionals

(show an interest in continuous learning) (Day, 1999), and have a moral purpose for

teaching where they are not only required to show devotion but also own technical

knowledge (Fullan, 2001). Consequently, professionalism should be directed to

counter the new complexities that teachers have to face (Barber, 1995).

Generally, the Western literature in the field of teacher professionalism is quite con-

sistent in stating that reform jeopardises teacher's professionalism (Rosenholtz, 1991;

Tomlinson, 1995; McLaughlin, 1997; Day, 1999; Bullough, 2000; McCulloch et al .,

2000). The literature indicates growing instances where professionalism has been

vulnerable to the lack of resources, more restrictions and lack of political support

(Barber, 1995; Day, 1999; Hargreaves, 2000). Thus, current reform initiatives are

seen as weakening rather than strengthening teacher professionalism. Education

systems are facing the problem of fears of economic decline and cultural dissolution

(McCulloch, 1997) and new challenges of students' behaviour and needs (Day,

1997). State politicians have exerted more control over the educational systems in

order to raise standards. Yet, this threatens teacher professionalism defined in terms

of autonomy (McCulloch, 1997). Regulating the content and process of education

seems to lead to both the enhancement of schooling and a 'waste of human poten-

tials, school mediocrity, and lost teacher commitment' (Rosenholtz, 1991, p. 214). At

a time when there is an increasing need to raise the standards of the teaching force to

combat rapid reform (Goodson and Hargreaves, 1996), the opposite seems to

happen. Day (1999) asserts that the current wave of educational reform has hindered

teachers' professionalism 'caught in the midst of new worlds of reform, teachers in

many countries have, like those in the English study (Helsby and Knight, 1997), cited

ways in which their ability and motivation to behave as professionals have been neg-

atively affected' (Day, 1999, pp. 6–7). He reminds us of the likelihood of exhaustion

of the individual's energy at a time of constant change and restructuring. Rosenholtz

believes policy makers do not face a problem of regulating but face a problem of

deregulating. The solution, in her opinion, is to trust teachers. Thus, there is a link

between professionalism and teachers' professional development. The conception of

professionalism influences governments' policies, teachers' professional learning

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

policies, activities and the learning culture of their workplace. Professionalism

requires professional knowledge, competence and expertise, which in turn require

further development through continuous professional education. It also requires poli-

cies, personal commitment, and persistence. Hence, a key concept for this type of

professionalism is successful policies and strategies of professional development.

Policies and strategies, according to Day (1997), depend on three aspects:

●self-esteem through positive rewards such as encouragement and

support (without political, social, economical and organisational

recognition and support, teachers' self-esteem will be in jeopardy),

●teaching skills are not enough-maintaining and developing individual

and collective vision comes through the career-long committed

professionalism of teachers; and finally,

●for teachers to become experts in learning requires continuing

professional development

(Day, 1997, p. 52).

Furthermore, flexibility, which is an important characteristic of successful class-

room teachers, is strongly linked to teachers' professional growth and the way in

which they develop as individuals and as professionals (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992,

p. ix). McClaughlin (1997) argues that professionalism 'must be rebuilt around the

challenges to practice'. Professionalism, in a situation of rapid change, requires that

teachers redefine their roles according to social, moral and emotional contexts.

Because of the 'idea and ideals of a profession in the post-modern world'

(Tomlinson, 1995), and because of the need for teachers to become professionals and

act like professionals at a time of constant change (Day, 1999), it is necessary to

reconstruct teacher professional development for teachers' professionalism

(McClaughlin, 1997, p. 80). Barber (1995) argues for a reconstruction of teachers'

professional development so that priority is given to teachers, their skills and to their

development in areas which enable them to confront new challenges. It is important,

therefore, to discuss the different forms of professionalism, which either limit or

promote teachers' professional development.

THE POSITION OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM IN OMAN

The Omanis, throughout history, have been a learning society. The many books

printed by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture from pre-1970 reflect the

Omanis' drive for knowledge even at times of stagnation during the 1960s. Yet, literate

people and scholars were a small percentage of the society. Within that context, the

status of teachers was highly respected, since they were the major source of knowl-

edge. However, after the renaissance of his Majesty Sultan Qaboos in 1970, the

government set up modern schools within a formal education system. First, the focus

was on quantity. With only a few indigenous teachers, the MOE had to depend on

recruitment from other countries. Since then, rapid recruitment of national student

teachers has been an on-going policy. Now there are approximately 26026 Omani

CULTURE AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

teachers teaching in the different levels of the education system. Table 3.1 shows the

percentage of national teachers compared with the expatriates in different educa-

tional levels.

Whilst it is true that there is still a large number of expatriate teachers, the overall

number of Omani national teachers has rapidly increased. Most of the elementary,

and cycle One of the Basic Education Schools, are dominated by Omani teachers.

The Omani nationals' percentage at all levels increases every year as a large number

of teachers graduate from six teacher-training colleges and the College of Education

at Sultan Qaboos University. Therefore, the Omanisation process of replacing expa-

triates with the national workforce in the education field is successful, which is an

important aspect in the Ministry of Education (MOE) proof of professionalisation.

As some MOE officials have stated, this increase in Omani nationals in the teaching

profession has triggered more effective ministerial policies of professionalism. It was

difficult for the Ministry to professionalise a workforce contracted for short periods.

The current professionalisation process can be classified into three fields:

●upgrading of the diploma qualification and controlling entry to the teaching pro-

fession by limiting it to university level or above,

●improved teacher status, and

●better professional development activities.

This was stated as a recommendation in the document of Oman 2020.

IMPROVING THE STATUS OF TEACHERS

Improving in-service training courses and

workshops for all staff in the educational field

The MOE has developed policies for the implementation of these recommendations.

In the past, the MOE designed policies intended to strengthen professionalisation.

Yet, within the previous education system, there was little room for teachers' creativity

and innovation. The new education system, though still highly centralised, brings with

it the possibility of optimism. It aims at enhancing the teaching and learning process

through:

●better qualified teachers; this is being done through upgrading programmes;

●encouraging teachers to implement child-centred education; formal in-service

training and in-service continuous support are carried out by hundreds of peri-

patetic supervisors;

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

TABLE 3.1 The percentage of teachers teaching in different

education levels in Oman (Educational Statistic Year book,

2003/2004)

Level Omani Expatriate

Basic education 11,716 2,223

General education 14,310 4,096

●implementing a participative model of teachers' professional development at the

school level.

The participative model aims at turning the school into a learning organisation for

its staff. Hence, the model sets a new trend of professional development through a

balanced provision of formal and informal and centralised and school based activities.

The MOE has exerted decisive effort to enhance MOE employment salaries to bring

them in line with other civil service employees. The National Plan of Action for

Education (NPA), however, includes steps that might directly or indirectly help promote

teacher professionalism:

●To upgrade and update the quality, and increase the capacity of teacher education

and training programmes in all teacher education and training institutions;

●To gradually 'Omanise' the teaching profession;

●To establish a central training department to cater for all types of in-service training,

train the trainers, design training materials and conduct practical problem-oriented

needs-based relevant field related research.

●Design 4-year BA/BSC/BED graduate degree teacher education programmes.

The MOE has developed policies in support of better teacher performance and

professionalism. Yet, professionalism is obstructed by aspects inherent in the cen-

tralised system and others owing to certain circumstances, the solution of which

takes a long time. Fortunately, the cultural and religious characterisations of the

Omani have helped achieve a concept of teachers as professionals. They attain train-

ing, commit themselves to continuous professional education, and subscribe to an

agreed and supervised code of ethics, with the first priority being service to the client.

MOE has made it possible that all teachers will be qualified to a Bachelor Degree

level and teachers themselves have a high code of ethics within the education system,

and serve their clients altruistically, owing to a feeling of responsibility towards the

education of the youngsters.

One of the challenges that face education systems in developing countries such as

Oman is the finding of 'ways and means to ensure that a quality teaching force is

available for schools' (Gardner, 1995). There is a need to re-define teacher education

and encourage teachers to rethink their current teaching approach of lecture-oriented

classes and change to learning by doing, problem solving, and discovery learning.

Teachers need to reflect on their current practices.

Another challenge that seems to hinder teacher professionalism is the rigidly

centralised education system. This results in forced initiatives and conformity. The

different educational and societal organisations and institutions also become islands

of bureaucracy. Therefore, opportunities for reciprocity, networking and sharing

become minimal. Many Middle Eastern educational systems are still teacher-centred.

The traditional classroom practices are the result of organisational culture rather than

a socially maintained stereotype. Socially and in religious terms, respect for the

teacher, kindness to the elderly and mercy to the young are part of both the Islamic

and Arabic culture. They are important concepts of people's morality and daily routines

in these contexts; they are also reflected in most school cultures. Whilst these morals

are strongly encouraged by the teaching of Islam, rote-learning and teacher-centred

CULTURE AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

approaches have currency in certain circumstances and are not only confined to certain

cultures. Educational practices which focus on rote-learning and teacher-centred

approaches stem from a lack of expertise and sometimes a lack of means rather than

from cultural restriction. Islam, which is a major source of the culture in Islamic coun-

tries, stresses the need to think, understand, perceive, use the senses, observe, explore

and discover. It encourages the use of induction, measures, scrutiny, exploration, follow-

up and examination as teaching approaches (AbdulRahman, 1996, pp. 66–67).

The Islamic way of teaching encourages sensual perception, perception of the

abstract, induction, deduction, measure, memory and finally cogitation which is to

think deeply and reflect. The following pyramid in Figure 3.1 presents the importance

of the above mentioned study approaches from an Islamic point of view. They are

arranged according to their importance:

Given this, rote-learning and teacher/curriculum-centred teaching should be

viewed as a 'generation gap'that reflects a stage in the developmental process of an

education system. Current educational practices in the Middle East in general are not

emanating from societal and cultural preservation but from political and social cir-

cumstances, which represent stages of development, through which other countries

have passed or are still to pass. The problem is not with the perception of how

education should be, but lies with the deep-rooted trends of holistic teaching

approaches which were inherited from times when there was no proper schooling.

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

Figure 3.1. Educational approaches from an Islamic perspective (AbdulRahman, 1996, p. 90)

Cogitation

Evaluation

Deduction

Induction

Memory

Measure

Abstract perception

Sensual perception

This is similar to how Hargreaves (2000) describes the situation in the West during

what he calls 'the pre-professional age'. He also argues that 'for a century or so,

transmission teaching formed the accepted and largely unquestioned wisdom of what

teaching really was (p. 155). Schools establish a system, no matter where or how it

originates but it becomes like the language grammar, once established [it] is difficult

to change' (Hargreaves, 2000, p. 153). There is no doubt that education is a main

priority in most developing countries, yet the policies are not always successful.

There are change efforts that only partially succeed. Changing the school culture

takes more than extra expenditure.

INFLUENCES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE

VISION OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

Interviews and document analyses have shown that first, the tradition of In-Service

Education and Training (INSET) in Oman is that it is used as an instrument to inform

teachers of the continuous developments in the educational field; second, cultural

legacies of assumed paternalistic responsibilities by governments to educate are also

applicable in teacher education (pre/in-service); third, the power and physical structures

maintain a culture of 'top-down' control; fourth, the new educational reform has

strong influences on the vision and policies of professional development but weaker

influences upon practice. Hence, changes in practice are in a transitional phase. The

difficulty of transforming professional development, despite a transformational

vision, was sustained by influential issues. Figure 3.2 presents the interplay between

these issues.

The transition to effective practice is a long-term process. The MOE tried to infuse

international perspectives through recruitment of consultants from developed countries

such as Canada and through participation in international conferences. Yet, the internal

forces were still dominant within the current policies of professional development.

This is not because of resistance, but the context in terms of structure, resources and time

frame does not support the movement towards a long-term professional development

CULTURE AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

Figure 3.2. A model of influence in the vision, policies and strategies of P.D.

Tradition

Culture

Structure

Vision

Policies

Strategies

The school

*Strong interaction

*Weak interaction

Teachers' professional development

International experiences and

cultural effects

Change requirements

structure. The following discussion explains how these issues influence professional

development in Oman.

THE VISION OF TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

WITHIN AN ERA OF REFORM

Teachers' status, academic and professional development are important characteristics

of teacher professionalism within the current reform. In the localised context tradition,

structure, culture and the suggested reform play an important part in the construction

of visions and the design of policies. Thus, it is wrong to believe the new reform will

abandon old policies and just start new ones. Although there is immense effort to

decentralize, as stated by the Minister of Education in an interview with a local news-

paper, where he explains that 'The importance of 'professional training' stems from

perspectives of the fundamentals and contentions that make the educational field a

dynamic field'. He went on to explain that 'From this perspective, the Ministry

makes every effort to translate these fundamentals and contentions into reality, which

aims at achieving total development in the educational field'. (His Excellency Yahya

Al-Suleimi, 2002).

This extract from the Minister's interview reflects the official commitment to

achieving total development in education. In this extract 'professional training' is one

of the fundamentals which make education dynamic in the sense that it is responsive

and developing. There is a contention that the teacher is a key player in the improvement

of education. Accordingly, there is a belief that giving importance to the teacher in

terms of his/her development leads to change and to the enhancement of education.

In this regard one MOE official said that 'You can't have reform or change or devel-

opment or alteration from quantity to quality without developing the implementers of

the education process, and one of the most important participants in the implementation

process is the teacher. Therefore, I think, if we give importance to the teacher, we can

change, enhance and develop education.

The findings show that there is commitment by the officials in Oman to the impor-

tance of teachers' professional development. However, they also reveal three main

problems with the vision of professional development which can be linked to the

effects of tradition of teaching, structure of the facilities and administration, school

culture and change. I will discuss their effects in relation to: (i) the construction of the

vision; (ii) the link between the vision and the mission of professional development

as a source of (in)consistencies; and (iii) the position of the school in the vision of

professional development.

TRADITION, CHANGE AND GLOBAL

PERSPECTIVES WITHIN THE VISION

First, the vision was not totally based on research findings within the Omani context

or shared through professional participation and discussion or through collaborative

work. The interviewees expressed the vision of professional development from their

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

own perspectives. This vision was constructed from previous experiences of the

individuals, observed international experiences and from the ideas of individuals

who have expertise in this field. Accordingly, vision was based on intuition that training

enhances performance and since performance is important for the success of the new

reform, then teachers should be trained. Although this perspective reflects a strong

perception of the pivotal role of the teacher within the new reform policy, it sets a

rather fuzzy mission for professional development. In the Western literature, such

mission of training is carried out to provide quick fixes for reform requirements. In

such case, professional development may not lead to professionalism as it is being

led by reform rather than leading reform.

It seems that the personnel at the planning stage in the MOE complained of the

vagueness and ambiguity of both the vision and mission because they had not been

clearly communicated or outlined to them. Whilst it is axiomatic that teachers must

be trained in how to implement the new reform (as part of the vision), successful pol-

icy and processes of professional development require an understanding and ownership

of the mission which they are set to achieve. Even though at the school level there

was a realisation of the importance of teachers' professional development, the under-

standing for this realisation was not founded on a clear mission and embedded within

an overall plan for school development.

All interviewed officials expressed the need to support teachers' professional

development at this time of reform. Yet, only two could articulate some aspects of the

overall mission of professional development. One interviewee said:

I think the Ministry's vision is to have all its teachers trained in child-

centred learning and in the methods and techniques that are associated

with child-centered learning.

Another argued that:

It seems to me that what he [the Minister of Education] would like to do

is have teachers learn how to teach this new curriculum … then he sees

these teachers needing to learn child-centred approach and how that

kind of program delivered.

These interviewees indicated that the vision was focused on helping teachers to

implement child-centred education but they were only guessing what was the

Ministry's mission in terms of teachers' professional development. This finding

about the poor link between the vision, policies and mission of professional develop-

ment is consistent with the literature in this field. Hord (1997) argues that it is not

enough to have visions but that there is a need to understand the mission as well.

Second, the lack of specific directives about the vision and mission of professional

development has led to different interpretations of professional development according

to traditions, personal preferences and experiences, and according to one's position

within the power hierarchy. This finding became clear from the way each interviewee

justified his/her evaluation of the current achievements in the field of teachers' pro-

fessional development. Accordingly, in linear systems, inconsistencies are not only

CULTURE AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM

limited to the gap between policy and practice but they also extend to different strata

in the power hierarchy between vision, policy and practice. There were instances

where visions were interpreted differently. It was contended that the implementation

of training should be changed from the traditional way of lecturing and reading from

written documents. One interviewee argued that:

when we have looked at professional development as it was delivered

previously, there was high emphasis on reading from papers, delivering

papers, a lecture format; we have never ever agreed with that format of

professional development, preferring a model where we have people

working in groups.

Yet, intentions might not become policies unless shared, and in turn this requires cul-

tural and structural changes in the way visions and policies are developed. In addition,

both vision and mission should be clear to the policy makers, the implementers and

receivers of professional development.

Third, the school, as an important source of learning for teachers as well as for

students, was marginalised in the previous vision of professional development. Only

one interviewee could perceive the school as the focal unit in reform and in teachers'

professional development. At the same time, the school was seen as still being unable

to take the responsibility for development as they lack the expertise. This interviewee

recognised the limited expertise of supervisors and senior teachers who should

provide the school with the professional expertise. Even though this is a strong reason,

the effect of the power structure, the paternalistic culture of assumed responsibility

and the tradition of relying on formal INSET for informing teachers should not be

underestimated in sustaining the current practices.

New initiatives as foreseen by the Minister of Education in his interview with a

local newspaper (January 16, 2002) include:

●Restructuring the off-site (the centralised) training from centralisa-

tion in the Ministry to de-centralisation of training.

●The establishment of training centres in all regions including the cen-

tral training centre in Muscat. They have been equipped with all nec-

essary administrative and technical equipment. The philosophy

underpinning this perspective is expressed in this extract. 'The trans-

fer of training from the training centre to the regions and to the towns

is a serious operation through which we seek to make the school the

centre of training and development'.

●The development and enhancement of the training centres in the

regions and the main training centre in Muscat with special technical

specifications which fulfil the training needs.

●Linking the training centres with the main training centre in Muscat

through an electronic network.

●Preparing a special manual of the basic skills for teacher training in

the schools under the supervision of the training core-team.

AHMED M. AL-HINAI

●The expansion of training opportunities to include all Ministry

personnel.

●Openness with the private sector's different institutions to benefit

from their experiences.

●Academically, the Ministry is now preparing a code of conduct with

the conditions of scholarships for the Masters and Ph.D. degrees, with

specifications of the specialisation according to the Ministry's needs

(H.E.Yahya Al-Suleimi, Alwatan Newspaper , January 16, 2002)

It is clear that these policies are not an operational framework for teachers'professional

development but that they reflect the Ministry's vision and commitment to go ahead with

establishing structures for staff development. They are a description of what the Ministry

was doing at that time and its future plans for this field. Yet, it depends on how these

structures are used and interpreted. Whilst there are indications of a desire for the decen-

tralisation of training (points 1 and 2 above) the conception of decentralization to the

interpreters of such vision may see it as the transfer of training from the Ministry to the

regions or to a place closer to the schools. Hence, the Ministry must ensure that its vision

and policies of professional development are well understood and implemented.

The interviews reveal that, in most cases, the policy of professional development

was narrowly conceived. One of the recruited expatriate consultants in this field in

Oman commented on the lack of a broad conception of teachers' professional devel-

opment by saying that 'the professional part is missing'. This certainly hinders

teacher professionalism. A recognition of teachers as professionals with a moral pur-

pose is necessary in an era of reform since old models of INSET seem to fail to bring

about change McLaughlin and Oberman (1996) argue that current practices of

INSET, staff development and teacher training are insufficient. They justify their

claim by stating that teacher training should be embedded in everyday activities.

They go on to argue that 'reformers' vision needs to frame new ideas about what

teachers need to learn; not only accumulating fact-based knowledge but the compre-

hension of new conception of context and pedagogy'(p. x).

In brief, professional development vision, mission, policies and practices are

becoming priorities in the last few years. There seems to be a genuine effort to pro-

vide varied and balanced opportunities of professional development. At the central

level there many workshops, conferences, evening lectures and an increased number

of publications. Also, the Ministry is making it possible for its staff to enroll in many

long-term accredited courses and higher education certificates.

At the school level, there are many programs of awareness raising of the importance

of professional development and its domains. Teachers are encouraged to involve them-

selves in action research, self-study, reflective practice and to attend workshops. Many

schools now conduct school-based training courses and workshops for their teachers.

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AHMED M. AL-HINAI

INTRODUCTION

I was six

When Mama was careless

She sent me to school

Alone

Five days a week

.......

I was held

In a classroom

Guarded by Churchill and Garibaldi

Pinned up on one wall

And

Hitler and Mao dictating

From the other

Guevara pointed a revolution

At my brains …

Each three-month term

They sent threats to

My mama and papa

Mama and papa loved

Their son and

Paid ransom fees

Each time …

Mama and papa grew

Poorer and poorer

And my kidnapper grew

Richer and richer

I grew whiter and whiter …

Fifteen years after

I was handed

Among loud applause

From fellow victims

A piece of paper

To decorate my wall

Certifying my release.

KONAI HELU THAMAN

4. PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING

CULTURAL DEMOCRACY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

IN PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 53–66.

This extract from the poem (Kidnapped) by Samoan Ruperake Petaia (1980) partly

sets the stage for this chapter. The term 'Partnership' implies acceptance of a common

goal towards which work is directed. In the context of this chapter, it is assumed that

progress towards quality and relevance in formal education has long been a major

target of many island nations. The article also makes a case for the (pivotal) role of

teachers in realizing educational targets and suggests that teacher education must

itself be relevant to the contexts of trainees and schools, and that teacher educators

must themselves create culturally democratic learning environments for their

students. An example of different groups coming together to help make this possible

is provided, focusing on work carried out at the regional University of the South

Pacific (USP) in consultation with stakeholders and aid partners.

PARTNERSHIPS

The partnership between teacher training institutions and schools has long been

recognized by many as an important element of teacher education, particularly in the

preparation of teacher trainees for the world of work. In the context of many Pacific

Island Countries (PICs) during the last 3 decades or so, secondary teacher education

has largely been achieved through a partnership between schools, (USP) and many

regional teachers' colleges. This type of partnership is increasingly important partic-

ularly given the fact that a school's accountability continues to be judged according

to students' performance in external examinations. Schools and therefore teachers

are expected to help prepare students for these examinations as well as face the many

life challenges that occur both locally and globally. There are also important partner-

ships formed between schools and their local communities and more recently

researchers have revealed what traditional people always knew, that when parents and

communities are involved in children's education there is improved learning. The

numerous web-sites that provide links for educational partnerships between schools,

parents, students as well as business people, especially in developed countries, reflect

the importance of this kind of partnership.

In this article, I wish to address the question of 'Partnership between whom and

progress towards what?'The types of partnerships I will be referring to may be a little

different from the ones with which many people may be familiar, both in terms of

purpose as well as scope. In most Pacific Island communities, successful partnerships

are usually informal, flexible and person-focused rather than structured, impersonal

and institutionalised. The participants in the partnerships which I shall discuss here

are educational researchers, teacher educators, undergraduate and post-graduate stu-

dents, and community elders, and others who share a common goal – that of reclaiming

Pacific education and making it more culturally democratic.

PACIFIC EDUCATION BEFORE SCHOOLING

Before schools were established in Pacific Island communities in the early part of the

19th century, education (as worthwhile learning) was always about partnerships;

KONAI HELU THAMAN

among extended family members; between families and communities and between

one community and another. Underlying these partnerships were shared values

derived from teachers'and learners'cultures. Such values underpinned the structures

as well as the processes of teaching and learning and together with their associated

knowledge and skills were transmitted by appropriate persons to future generations

for the purposes of cultural survival and continuity. The teachers were those who

themselves, had mastered the knowledge, skills and values that were expected to be

passed on (Thaman, 1988).

When Christian missionaries established schools in the islands of the Pacific

Ocean, a mere 200 years ago, no one asked 'how do Pacific people conceptualise

wisdom, learning and knowledge?' or, 'what values were important in these Pacific

societies?' The new education introduced sets of practices and values that were

supposed to offer Pacific people opportunities for enlightenment, civilisation, and

cash employment. This new system of education involved partnerships between

newly established religious bodies and newly converted Pacific community leaders

and their main aim was the transformation of Pacific peoples, their cultures and com-

munities. This type of partnership, which continues today, has largely resulted in the

destruction and continuing devaluing of Pacific indigenous educational systems

together with the values and knowledge that underpinned them. The assumption then,

as it is now, was/is that whatever was deemed worthwhile to learn and to teach in

Europe (or now in the U.S.A., Australia and New Zealand) was important for Pacific

people as well. Schooling was (and is) assumed to be culture-free. However, during

the past two decades, and encouraged by the UN World Decade for Cultural

Development, some Pacific people and communities have been asking serious questions

of their education systems and trying to put Culture back into the formal education

process as a way of addressing the deteriorating quality of school education in most

parts of the region (Pene et al., 2002; Lini, 2003). Furthermore, there have been some

efforts to forge partnerships among researchers, education professionals, Ministry of

Educational officials, and aid donors aimed at achieving ownership of Pacific

education by Pacific people.

CULTURE, TEACHING AND LEARNING

Western social scientists say that culture shapes people's beliefs and attitudes, their

roles and role expectations as well as the way they interpret and make meaning of their

own and other's behaviour (Eagly and Chaiken, 1998). Sociologists in particular assert

that role expectations, learned and internalised through the process of socialisation,

help guide people's behaviour and social interactions, and when people from different

cultural backgrounds use their own individual cultural cues to define and interpret

role expectations of others, role conflicts often result. Similarly, communication prob-

lems often arise from a lack of knowledge and understanding of cultural norms and

cues, deemed important for interpreting the behaviour and conduct of those involved

in the communication process, such as, for example, between teachers and students

(Riley, 1985; Widdowson, 1987; Ninnes, 1991; Taufe'ulungaki, 2000). Central to the

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

teaching/learning process and among the things that usually influence and affect

teachers' and learners'role expectations is what has come to be known as role boundary ,

which, when breached and unfulfilled, often results in conflict situations (Coleman,

1996). The notion of role boundary seems to be akin to the pan-Polynesian concept

of va/wah , which in many Polynesian cultures commonly refers to both a physical as

well as a metaphorical space that defines and sanctions inter-personal as well as

inter-group relations (Thaman, 2002).

Despite the importance of role boundary for effective communication, Cortazzi

(1990) suggests that a key factor in the success or failure of the teacher-learner

communication process, is pedagogy. However, we know that pedagogy itself is

shaped by the cultural values and ideologies of the society in which it originates and

teachers transmit and reinforce the cultural values that are embedded in the teaching

approaches that they use (Barrow, 1990; Leach, 1994; Kelen, 2002). Consequently, in

the cross-cultural classroom, a teacher's professionalism as well as cultural sensitivity

are important consideration for learner success and must be addressed by teacher

educators (Thaman, 1999).

Culture is used in this article to refer to the way of life of a people that includes

their language, accumulated knowledge, skills, values and beliefs together with the

means of acquiring, transmitting and maintaining these. A distinction is made

between culture and ethnicity. Ethnicity, like race, is a western-derived idea, based on

biology and shared gene pools. Culture on the other hand is a social concept, based

on shared values, behaviour and performance. Membership of an ethnic or racial

group is determined by biology; whereas membership of a cultural group is deter-

mined by behaviour and performance. People may belong to a particular ethnic group

but do not identify culturally with that group. According to Linnekin and Poyer

(1990), Pacific people did not have a notion of ethnicity before European contact but

they had a concept of culture in that they were aware of people who were different

from them because they behaved differently towards one another as well as towards

others. It is unfortunate that many people today tend to use the two terms inter-

changeably, and some expect people of the same ethnic group to behave in similar

ways. The distinction is of particular interest to educators in that while a person's

ethnicity cannot be changed, culture is learned and a person may indeed choose

which cultural group(s) s/he may wish to be identified with and/or belong to.

As most people know, members of a cultural group normally share a cultural

history, sustained and maintained by its own language, epistemology and way of see-

ing the world. The Pacific Island region is arguably one of the world's most culturally

diverse regions, where different cultural groups have developed particular knowledges,

skills and values that together form the bases for the education of group members.

Pacific indigenous cultures have existed for a very long time – thousands of years in

fact – and the different responses of Pacific peoples to the onslaught of outside forces

such as colonialism (and now globalisation) was, and will continue to be, a function

of their cultural differences (Linnekin and Poyer, 1990).

In terms of the relationships between culture and education, these are expressed by

many writers in two ways: the first relates to the conflicting emphases of formal

KONAI HELU THAMAN

education (schooling) with those of most learners 'home' cultures resulting in what

Little (1996) calls 'cultural gaps'; and, the second relates to the role of schooling in

the development of cultural and/or multi-cultural literacies along the lines that Hirsh

(1988) suggests. Both of these are important considerations for education in PICs

and underlie the collaborative work that many of us have been involved in during the

past 2 decades.

As alluded to earlier, the teaching of mainly European based knowledge, skills and

values in Pacific Island schools has helped transform not only the structures and

processes of Pacific indigenous education systems but also the way Pacific people see

themselves and their environment, as well as the way they think and communicate

with one another. The last two decades saw an increasing number of Pacific-based

educators re-thinking and re-examining their own education as well as their education

systems, and trying to clarify for themselves the differences between their received

wisdom (from their formal, mainly western education) and the wisdom of the cultures

in which they grew up and were socialised, and from which they continue to gain

important knowledge, skills and values (Thaman, 1988, 1992, 1993; Nabobo and

Teasdale, 1995; Bakalevu, 2000; Taufe'ulungaki, 2000). In the context of school

education, Little (1996) argues that the difference between these two (sources) is

small for those students whose home cultures are attuned to the culture of formal

education but large for those (students) whose home cultures are vastly different

from the culture and expectations of schooling.

If a (school) curriculum is, as Lawton (1974) would have us believe, a selection of

the best of a culture, then the content of any education has value underpinnings that

are always associated with a particular cultural agenda. In my view, education is

inevitably about culture because it is the values of a culture that must underpin its

education system. In Oceania, it is peoples' culture that provides the framework and

the lens through which most see themselves and their world. For millennia, Pacific

cultures (and their associated knowledges, skills and values) framed people's ways of

seeing and behaving. Today Pacific peoples share worldviews that comprise intricate

webs of inter-relationships which provide meaning to and frameworks for daily living

and cultural survival. Generally manifested in various kinship relationships, such

frameworks not only define particular ways of being and behaving but also ways of

knowing, types of knowledge and wisdom, and how these are passed on and/or com-

municated to others. Many Pacific people today believe that for the sake of cultural

survival and continuity, schools (and in turn teachers) should have a role in the trans-

mission of the best of Pacific cultures, especially their languages, to future generations

of Pacific people (Pene et al ., 2002).

This is particularly important today as the global market ideology pervades the

lives of even the smallest and most isolated Pacific community. With globalisation,

education is increasingly seen as a commodity (to be sold) in the global market place

and developed countries such as Australia and New Zealand are proactively marketing

their educational services everywhere including in Oceania. Such an emphasis on

market driven educational development is making issues such as cross cultural transfer,

globalised curricula and appropriate learning strategies important, as globalisation

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

threatens to blur our cultural diversity, and our educational services become more

standardised and homogenised (Mattweson and Thaman, 1995).

FOCUS ON TEACHERS AND TEACHING

In most PICs today, teachers have the difficult task of mediating the interface

between the different cultural systems of meanings and values that continue to exist

in our schools. The stimulus for this mediation of course comes from their professional

role, which mandates intensive interaction with other people's children as well as their

parents. In the classroom, points of conflicts are usually communicated to teachers

indirectly by the behaviour of their students as they move between their home

cultures and that of the school.. In this context, teachers would need to know the

differences as well as commonalities between different cultural perspectives. They

would also need to theorise their own education in order to find ways of integrating

the different cultures which have contributed to their own development. For Pacific

education systems, this inevitably means focusing a lot more clearly on teachers and

their education.

Another reason why it is important to re-thinking Pacific education has been the

many failed donor-driven educational projects that we have witnessed over the past

thirty years and the high failure and push out rates experienced by many Pacific

Island schools. The quality of schools has become a major concern and students are

usually the ones who suffer (ADB, 1996). In developed countries, schools generally

have three main agendas, namely the promotion of economic progress, the transmis-

sion of culture from one generation to the next and the cultivation of children's

intellectual and moral development. Here the assumption is that children would be

helped to grow intellectually and morally by expanding their knowledge and under-

standing of their cultural heritages. This personal growth would empower them to

build upon their heritage through discovering improved ways of managing themselves

and their environment, and generating greater wealth for their society. However, we

know now that schools in developed as well as developing countries have fallen short

of such an ideal synthesis mainly because the economic and cultural agendas of

schooling have increasingly come into conflict (Serpell, 1993). In PICs the problem

is further complicated by the existence of differing perceptions about children's

intellectual and moral development and their relationship to the type of socialisation

practices that exist in different Pacific societies, one embedded within (Pacific) ver-

nacular cultural traditions on one hand, and a European-based perception that

informs teaching and learning in the school, on the other.

In this scenario Pacific school teachers occupy an important but culturally

ambiguous position. Whilst their professional training commits them to the rationale

and practices of a western-derived school curriculum, their personal identities are

often rooted in their own cultural traditions, values and norms. Their training makes

them part of an intellectual elite but their early socialisation occurred within a vernac-

ular culture that is very similar to that of many students. In most Pacific communities,

school children's relationships with their parents and other elders continue to be

KONAI HELU THAMAN

negotiated within the terms of reference of local cultures and vernacular or indigenous

education systems that have their own ideas about cognitive development, interper-

sonal and social responsibility, as well as the development of wisdom. At school,

however, Pacific cultural values and ideals are usually de-valued and discouraged

because they often conflict with the values that the school is trying to promote. For

example, while schooling and the educational bureaucracy rely on universalism and

impersonality, indigenous education systems rely on specific contexts and interper-

sonal relationships. Schooling promotes individual merit but indigenous education is

based on the primacy of the group. The extent to which the school represents the cultures

of Pacific Island communities continues to be minimal as the officially sanctioned

values are those of the school structure, the approved curriculum and the teaching

profession, and NOT those of the cultures to which most students and teachers

belong (Sanga, 2000). At best schooling offers the lucky few (less than 5%) access to

the modernised, monetised sector; at worst it is a recipe for the destruction of the best

of Pacific Island cultures and communities. Today as the global market ideology

pervades Pacific lives and Pacific education, it is important for all those involved in

schooling, especially teachers and those responsible for their education, to continue

to re-think and re-examine their work.

Unfortunately teachers have not always been a priority in a region, where they

were perceived as a hindrance to, rather than a help in, the educational reform move-

ment of the last 30 years. A large part of educational reforms in many PICs was based

on the assumption that new curricula could be 'teacher proof' and students could

learn in spite of their usually under-qualified and sometimes incompetent teachers.

Thirty years and many failed curriculum projects later, some foreign donors, con-

sultants and even local bureaucrats are beginning to see that a qualified and strong

teaching force hold the key to the success of many of their suggested educational

reforms.

The neglect of teachers in PICs reflected the global picture where the role of teachers

was not perceived to be central to international debates and discussion about education

despite the 1966 Geneva Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers. For

example, in 1995 a World Bank Education Sector Review of Six Key Options for

reforming education systems did not even mention teachers, their selection or train-

ing. Leaving teachers out in the periphery of educational debates helped reinforce a

belief that educational systems could be changed without having to deal with teachers.

As a result, by the mid 1990s teachers throughout the world had been relegated to an

inferior role both in relation to their working conditions and to teaching itself, a state

of affairs that must have caused the then Deputy Secretary General of UNESCO

Colin Power to ask the question "Would you let your son or daughter become a

teacher in your country today?" (Power, 1998).

The Delores Report, "Education for the Twenty First Century: learning the treasure

within" (1996) however, shifted global attention to teachers and teaching by devoting a

whole chapter to teachers. Entitled, Teachers: in search of new perspectives, the authors

assert that countries who wish to improve the quality of education must first improve

the recruitment, training, social status and working conditions of their teachers and

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

encourage teacher participation in policy decision-making. The relative neglect of

teachers in the educational decision making processes of many PICs also reflected

curriculum emphases on learning rather than teaching, an emphasis that partly reflected

the global concern about child-centred pedagogies and PICs' over-dependence on

foreign technical advisors, their languages, theories and ideas. Most Pacific indige-

nous cultures do not easily distinguish between teaching and learning and many have

their own notions of learning, knowledge and wisdom and how these should be

structured and/or assessed (Thaman, 1988, 1993, 2003). Furthermore, most Pacific

teachers do not characteristically interrogate the teaching and learning materials that

are provided as part of bilateral and/or multilateral donor-funded educational reform

projects largely because they fear that such questioning might be interpreted as

ungratefulness or impoliteness (Thaman, 1992).

The recent focus of educational debates and dialogue on schools and the role of

teachers in particular, is a welcome sign to those who have been working towards

ensuring cultural sensitivity and inclusiveness among the Pacific's teaching force. In

1992, for example, a UNESCO sub-regional workshop held in Rarotonga, Cook

Islands reaffirmed the need for ownership of school education by Pacific people, if

improvement in student learning outcomes were to occur. The Rarotonga declaration

also noted the vital contribution of teachers towards such a process. (Teasdale and

Teasdale, 1992). Later in the same year, the Pacific Association of Teacher Educators

(PATE) was formed at a regional consultation held at the USP. Teacher educators

from around the region resolved to re-examine their curriculum offerings with a view

to making it more culturally inclusive of both students as well as their teachers. The

implementation of this resolution was strengthened by the establishment, in 1997, of

a UNESCO Chair in teacher education and culture at the USP tasked with advocacy,

teaching, research and publication of the centrality of cultural considerations in

teacher education and curriculum development.

In order to help situational analyses of teachers' college curricula, the UNESCO

Office for the Pacific States provided funds for a major collaborative research project

which was undertaken in 1998, aimed at finding out the extent to which the curricu-

lum of teacher education reflected and/or incorporated elements of the (Pacific) of

Pacific students' cultures. The Project also helped raise awareness among teacher

educators, of the importance of Pacific cultures in the education of teachers both as

a pedagogical tool as well as an important topic of study. This project also provided

an example of partnership between the University of the South Pacific's Institute of

Education, the UNESCO Chair in teacher education and culture, PATE and staff of

seven regional teacher education institutions: three in Fiji, one each in Samoa, Tonga,

Cook Islands, Kiribati, and Solomon Islands. The information gathered was intended

to be used for developing educational material that will help teacher educators

enhance their ability to better contextualise their own teaching and thus provide better

role models for their students since it was clear from the survey results that many college

staff were either unable or unwilling to seriously take into consideration the cultural

backgrounds of their students in the selection of course content, methods of teaching

as well as assessment techniques (Thaman, 2000).

KONAI HELU THAMAN

An important outcome of the above project has been the publication in 2000 of sev-

eral Teacher Education Modules targeting trainee teachers as well as teacher educators.

The authors of these Modules are Pacific researchers and educators who are concerned

about the need to better contexualise Pacific teaching and curriculum. Using the

general theme of Cultural Democracy in Teacher Education, six Modules have been

published so far. They are:

●Thaman's Towards culturally democratic teacher education;

●Taufe'ulungaki's Vernacular languages and classroom interaction in the Pacific;

●Nabobo's Incorporating local knowledge in teaching about education and society;

●Tupuola's Making sense of human development: beyond western concepts and

universal assumptions;

●Bakalevu's Ways of mathematising in Fijian society; and

●Sanga's Learning from indigenous leadership.

More titles are being prepared. Through PATE, the Modules have been distributed to

regional teachers' colleges where they are used by many college lecturers as well as

their students. At the USP, for example, teacher education students as well as those who

are majoring in Education use selected Modules as course texts. The Modules have also

attracted the attention of university staff and students from abroad (Kedrayate, 2003;

Taufe'ulungaki, 2004).

As well as the production of teacher education materials, the UNESCO Chair together

with staff and students in tertiary institutions in the region have also collaborated in

carrying out research into Pacific indigenous educational ideas as a way of providing

basic information about Pacific Knowledge Systems. An important outcome of this

partnership has been the publication, in 2004, of Educational Ideas from Oceania

(Thaman, 2003) a collection of essays, authored by staff and students from around the

Pacific region. The book is being used as a text for undergraduate and postgraduate

students at the USP as well as some tertiary institutions elsewhere in the region.

RETHINKING PACIFIC EDUCATION INITIATIVE

As mentioned earlier the concern about ownership of education together with cul-

tural inclusivity in Pacific education led to the Colloquium on Re-thinking Pacific

Education in 2001 and the subsequent establishment of the Rethinking Pacific

Education Initiative (RPEI). The nitiative represents a partnership of donor agencies

(in this case, NZODA), Victoria University, Wellington; the University of the South

Pacific (USP); and a network of Pacific Island educational researchers and educators

who have been providing leadership to several Pacific countries in the past ten years,

with a view towards encouraging culturally appropriate analyses of Pacific education

systems and assisting educators to re-focus their planning on Pacific values and

knowledge systems. A specific goal of this initiative is to assist Pacific teachers in

theorising their own education and develop culturally inclusive content and pedago-

gies through action research that emphasize the importance of Pacific values as a

foundation for Pacific education and development. Culturally inclusive teacher

education is seen as central to the achievement of the outcomes of RPEI.

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

In 2003, NZODA under the Pacific Education Research Fund (PERF) awarded

several research grants to Pacific Island researchers from New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa,

Tonga, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. The findings of these

researchers will assist the activities of RPEI. As well as research, RPEI has also

jointly organized and hosted several educational conferences aimed raising aware-

ness of the need to re-think and reclaim Pacific education by Pacific people. These

included the Re-thinking Vanuatu Education, Port Vila (2002); Re-thinking

Educational Aid in the Pacific, Fiji (2003); Re-thinking teacher education , Samoa

(2004) and Rethinking Education in Micronesia, Majuro (2004). RPEI comprises a

selection of Pacific educators who are passionate about and committed to the

improvement of teachers and teaching in Pacific communities, be they in the Pacific

Islands or in developed countries such as Australia and New Zealand. It is important

that these educators and researchers are encouraged and supported so that they can

continue to make a difference to the education of their fellow islanders.

PERSONAL CONTRIBUTION

Most of my professional life has been devoted to teaching in general and to re-thinking

teaching and learning in the Pacific, in particular. Through my teaching and writing,

I try and encourage fellow teachers to look towards their cultures for inspiration and

guidance in order that they may better contextualize their work and enable more

Pacific students to succeed in education. Over the years I have developed a personal

philosophy and framework for teaching and research that is sourced from Pacific

cultures and values in general and from Tongan culture in particular. I first publicly

presented Kakala, a Pacific concept of Education at a meeting of Pacific Island

educators that was held in Fiji in 1992. Later in the same year, I shared Kakala with

fellow educators in New Zealand at a major Pasifika education conference. Since

then I have been able to share Kakala at numerous regional and international foras.

Kakala, in my culture (Tonga), refers to a collection of fragrant flowers, woven

together as a garland for a special person or a special occasion. Kakala has its equiv-

alents in other Pacific Islands societies in the forms of the Fijian salusalu, the

Hawaiian lei or the Cook Island and Tahitian hei. There exists in Tonga a special

etiquette and mythology associated with kakala, that reflects the integrated and holistic

nature of the worldviews and epistemologies of the indigenous cultures of the Asia/

Pacific region. Three elements associated with kakala provide the bases for the

framework; these are toli , tui and luva .

Toli refers to the collection and selection of flowers, fruit, leaves and other fragrant

and decorative elements needed for making a kakala. The type of kakala that is to be

fashioned will depend on certain considerations including the occasion for which a

kakala is to be worn, the person(s) who is going to wear the kakala or to whom a

kakala is to be presented, as well as the availability of the necessary ingredients

needed for making a kakala

Tui is the actual making or the weaving of the kakala . The time taken to make a

kakala would depend on the complexity of the desired piece as well as the intricacies

KONAI HELU THAMAN

of the flower arrangements that are to be used. In Tonga, flowers are ranked according

to their cultural significance, and partly based on various mythologies. For example,

heilala (Garcinia sessilis), is said to have originated in pulotu (the Tongan other-

world) and is the highest ranked of all Tongan kakala . Classified as a kakala hingoa

("chiefly" or "noble" kakala), it appears on the top of other kakala signifying its rank

and importance, while lose (the rose), a relatively recent introduction with no mythol-

ogy, is lower ranked and classified as a kakala vale ("common" kakala) . However,

both types of kakala are necessary for the creation of a beautiful and fragrant final

product.

Luva, the final aspect in kakala making, is the giving away or presentation of a

kakala to someone else, an act that could be referred as "garlanding" someone special.

In Tongan culture, a kakala is meant to be offered or given away to someone special as

a sign of 'ofa (compassion or love) and faka'apa'apa (respect). The receiver of a

kakala may be a dancer, or a special guest at a gathering, or a relative or friend who

is departing on, or arriving from, a journey. S/he may be an important guest at a

gathering or a student graduating from high school or university, who has achieved

something special in the eyes of his/her people. A kakala is often passed on from the

original recipient to another person who in turn shares in the original purpose for

which the kakala was given in the first place. For me, kakala provides a philosophy

(as well as a methodology) of teaching and learning, which although rooted in my

culture, can be adapted to other cultures and other contexts. Kakala requires me to

use knowledge that is sourced both locally and globally so that I may weave a garland

that is both meaningful, appropriate and worthy of being passed on.

Kakala may also be used as a framework for understanding Pacific students and a

way of contextualising teaching and learning, in order to make them more culturally

inclusive and democratic. It has also been used by researchers as a culturally appro-

priate framework for studies among Pacific peoples in New Zealand (Koloto, 2003).

For me, kakala provides a useful alternative to the totalising framework of western

scientific and reductionist thinking that continues to dominate much of the work in

universities and other tertiary institutions. Kakala is an intergrated, inclusive and

holistic concept that values the va/wah or relationships between teacher and learner,

and compliments so called rational, objective and impersonal considerations charac-

teristic of modern human interactions. Finally, kakala embraces the four pillars of

learning, as espoused by the Delores Report on Education for the 21st century (1998),

namely learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; and learning to

be. To these I would add learning together.

For many of us who still call the Pacific Islands home, but who were or are being

educated in higher education institutions outside of our home countries and cultures,

our newly acquired worldviews may represent our flight from our cultural roots, from

nature and from one another. Perhaps it is time that we more closely examine our own

(cultural) ways of thinking and knowing in order to explore what might be changed

in our teaching and learning, so that we can create for ourselves and for those under

our care, an education environment that is not only sustainable but inclusive in its

processes, contexts and outcomes. It is interesting, however, that on one hand, Pacific

PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

educators' concern for the inclusion of Pacific cultures and their knowledge systems

in the curricula of Pacific schools and universities is being referred to by some as a

"culturalist" approach, motivated by the personal yearnings of some educators (Burnett,

2005), while on the other, the continuing emphases of schools upon the languages,

values and knowledge systems of foreign cultures represent 'education for all'. For

me educating for cultural survival and sustainability ought to be a concern of all

Pacific schools, teachers, and communities, and Pacific people, including teachers

and students have a right to teach and to learn about their own cultural knowledge and

values systems – just like everybody else.

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PARTNERSHIPS FOR PROGRESSING CULTURAL DEMOCRACY

Ka huri taku reo My words call out

Ki te hiku o te ika to the end of the land

Ki te hiku o te rangi and to the sky;

Ki runga rawa e men, women,

E hine, te tama old and young,

E koro, e kui turn this way

Ka huri mai, whakarongo mai- so that we can talk together.

What do Maori want from the education system? The same as everyone else, perhaps.

Wings for their children to fly with. To be equipped to become the best, the most

successful people they can.

Simple really. Like flying a kite. It just needs a steady current, an understanding of

the kite's potential, and the freedom to dance and soar and play with the wind.

And putting it just as simply, that is the job of our education systems: to make it

possible for all of our students to fly as high and as freely as they can.

So when the challenge comes in New Zealand from Maori to meet our Treaty com-

mitments in education, it is important to see it in simple as well as in socio-politically

complex terms. In simple terms, meeting our Treaty obligations in education means

doing justice to Maori students and to the families and communities they come from,

and to the Pakeha (the term used for a non-indigenous New Zealander) students and

their communities in terms of empowering them to be comfortable and effective in a

country that has committed itself to acknowledging two official cultures. In more

complex terms that task engages us in re-assessing what happens in our schools, in

examining what needs to change, and in finding effective ways to bring about that

change.

SYSTEMIC CHANGE – AND THE FOCUS OF

THIS CHAPTER

The issue is one that occurs in different forms around the world. In Australia, the

process of Reconciliation challenges the education system to significantly address

the needs of Aboriginal communities, to find ways of meeting the goals they identify

for their young people. Canada wrestles not only with the educational needs of

its indigenous peoples, but also with the demands of two cultures who each

claim sovereignty in different provinces. In the United States, education systems are

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

5. THE TREATY, THE INSTITUTION AND

THE CHALKFACE: AN INSTITUTION-WIDE PROJECT

IN TEACHER EDUCATION

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 67–78.

confronted by the needs and expectations of Native peoples, Latino/Latina and

Blacks. Ireland and Wales have reclaimed a place for their Gaelic languages, but still

grapple with political issues in their education systems. The postcolonial countries of

Africa, and India too, have shrugged off colonial rule but they still struggle with

making the systems they have been left with their own and with making them address

different tribal needs. In New Zealand, the challenge is anchored in the Treaty of

Waitangi, and centres around the promise of partnership. And the challenge comes

from a history of Maori needs not being met.

Our purpose in this paper is to give an account of how the institution in which we

work, the Christchurch College of Education, hears that challenge and of the process

we have engaged in to meet it. We will briefly describe the College of Education and

its relationship to nation-wide Maori claims for a systemic shift in the processes of

education. Then we will examine the specific strategic goals the College has set, and

the ways it seeks to implement them. Part of the College's response has been to

appoint us, the two writers of this paper, as Joint Co-ordinators of the Bicultural

Project. We will, therefore, give an account of the experiences we have had and of the

future developments that we plan.

Before examining the College's goals and our work in more detail, we would like

to draw out some of what we see as significant concepts in educational theory and

research as they relate to our project.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Two concepts that are central to our work are decolonisation and capacity building.

Decolonisation in broader terms refers to the process of deconstructing the external

systems and internalised mental maps that are the product of colonisation on indige-

nous people (Smith, 1999; Tau, 2001). The external systems, social, economic and

political, structure our society in ways that privilege certain backgrounds, connections,

and kinds of knowledge (Bernstein, 1971, Bourdieu, 1993; Walker, 1999;). They

determine who will have access to resources and what kinds of needs those resources

will address. The internalised mental maps are products of what Gee (1992) calls

Discourse: the systems of meanings that determine the ways in which we talk, act,

interact, think, believe and value. They are specific to particular groups and they are

social constructs. They are also intimately related to the distribution of social power

and the hierarchical structure in society. Both the external structures and the inter-

nalised Discourses impact on education by making what happens in classrooms more

relevant and accessible to certain groups of students than to others (Hooks, 1994;

Lareau, 1997). The relative failure of Maori students within the education system has

been attributed to both economic and social barriers (Waitangi Tribunal, 1986) and to

ideological biases (Simon, 1986).

As analysis of the problem moves into a search for solutions and an advocacy of

change, decolonisation becomes linked with capacity building: the development of

skills, knowledge and resources within a particular community or group so that the

people can become increasingly autonomous in determining their well-being. In the

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

New Zealand context the term tino rangatiratanga (effective sovereignty) is often

used by Maori to describe the desired outcome from the processes of decolonisation

and the building of capacity.

Rangatiratanga describes the fully developed capacity of Maori to determine the

resources and the decision-making that affect Maori people (Durie, 1998). It also

denotes their right to hold and exercise that capacity (Walker, 1990). Partnership is

another term that is often used in this context. It relates to the promises made in the

Treaty of Waitangi to protect the rangatiratanga of Maori in the process of establishing

a British colony in New Zealand (Kawharu, 1989). It also relates to the role Maori intend

to hold within New Zealand political and educational structures: to be partners rather

than beneficiaries. A further meaning is also very relevant to our discussion in this

paper: it refers to a vision of Maori and Pakeha genuinely consulting each other and

working in collaboration to achieve the well-being of both parties.

In educational terms the concept of capacity building, or the development of

rangatiratanga, is given practical application in the Kohanga Reo movement (literally,

'language nests', refers to early childhood centers with Maori language immersion),

in Maori language schools, bilingual schools, and kaupapa Maori schools (education

delivered in Maori language but also based on Maori values), and in a range of post-

compulsory programmes and courses that aim at Maori development. Graham Smith

(1992, and elsewhere) relates kaupapa Maori to international theoretical ideas about

emancipatory education, such as those of Friere, Bourdieu, Gramsci and Giroux, but

he also emphasises that for Maori people there is another theoretical framework

which connects kaupapa Maori to the wider structures of Maori society: "for example,

notions of tino rangatiratanga (autonomy) mana (authority) iwi (tribal support)

whanaungatanga (group responsibility) manaakitanga (sharing and support) and many

others." In recent statements Ngai Tahu (the iwi or tribal goup which encompasses most

of the South Island) articulates a goal of their capacity building, as do other iwi

groups, in terms of expectations of specific achievement outcomes for their young

people and in terms of the provision of specific cultural content, such as language

teaching, and resources (Ngai Tahu, 2001). These very specific plans directly inform

our project at the College.

Both the concept of decolonisation and that of capacity building have relevance for

Pakeha as well as Maori. It has been repeatedly proposed (among others, Mitcalfe

and Harper, 1969; Friere 1972) that both oppressor and oppressed are victims of

colonisation. A discourse that privileges a single set of values and a blinkered

approach to knowledge disempowers the apparent beneficiaries of a system as well

as the victims. Within the educational context, Pakeha teachers are disempowered

when they do not know how to meet the needs of their Maori students, and Pakeha

students are disempowered when they are not being equipped to understand and be

able to interact with both the cultures of their land. There have been a number of

educational initiatives in New Zealand, as there have been in other countries, that

have taken as their premise the need to liberate both cultures. One such project is

Te Mauri Pakeaka, recorded by Greenwood (1999, 2001), and also the subject of a

book in development by Wilson & Greenwood. Capacity building within these terms

THE TREATY, THE INSTITUTION AND THE CHALKFACE

involves the cross-cultural development of Pakeha so that they are better able to function

in a bicultural country and, in the case of teachers, to be effective in meeting the needs

of all their students. It is important, therefore, to our project to engage both Maori

and Pakeha in the processes of bringing about curriculum and organisational change.

It is also very useful that one of us is Maori (Liz) and the other is Pakeha, (Janinka)

as we offer a model of a bicultural collaboration.

Decolonisation and capacity building are processes that require the active,

informed and increasingly self-determined participation of those who are involved. They

require strategies for action and strategies for critically reflecting on action. When we

were appointed to the role of co-ordinators for the College's project we turned to

participatory action research as a model of a way of working that offers both an

approach to researching the need for change and strategies for bringing about change.

Participatory action research involves the communities it engages with in an exami-

nation of their own aspirations and practice in their own working environments. Its

purpose is not only to gather information, but also to lead to emancipatory practice

(Zuber-Skeritt, 1992; Robertson, 2000; Wadsworth, 1998). As a research methodology,

participatory action research aligns to a significant degree with the kinds of

approaches to research that are being put forward by Maori. Linda Smith, for example,

discussing indigenous approaches to research, identifies self-determination as a key

strategic goal. "Self-determinism in a research agenda," she writes (p. 116), "becomes

something more than a political goal. It becomes a goal of social justice which is

expressed through and across a wide range of psychological, social, cultural and

economic terrains." Hand in hand with self-determination comes a focus on practical

outcomes, an insistence on gains for the participants as well as the researchers

(Jahnke and Taiapa, 1999; Smith, 1999). We see ourselves, therefore, in this project

working within a paradigm that grows out of both participatory action research and

contemporary Maori research perspectives.

CHRISTCHURCH COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

AND GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES

Christchurch College of Eduction began as a teacher training institute. The education

of teachers, pre-service, and in-service is still its primary business, although the pro-

vision of higher degrees grounded in teaching practice has developed to stand along

side its initial undergraduate and advisory programmes. In addition it has developed

a number of programmes beyond teacher education: notably a school of Business

Studies, and a Performing Arts Centre.

Some would say it has been a very monocultural organisation, and it would be hard

to argue against that judgement. Christchurch as a whole has promoted an image of

itself as an English community, descended from the first four ships and retaining

perhaps more of the class and cultural consciousness of Victorian England than

England itself has. However, both Christchurch and the College have been confronted

with the need to change. The pressure on the College to deal with its obligations to

Maori comes from national and from local sources.

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

On a national front, the Ministry of Education has a policy-shaping and audit team,

Te Puni Kokiri, that reviews the practice of educational institutes in terms of the way

they meet their treaty obligations. In its report (2001) on institutions delivering

teacher education Te Puni Kokiri makes a number of firm recommendations. These

include the stipulations that teacher education programmes:

●extend their current curricula pertaining to Maori to include more practical content

that will prepare trainees for the reality of the contemporary New Zealand classroom;

●develop a prescribed set of competencies to equip graduates to teach students who

are Maori.

The report also reminds teacher training providers that Maori expectations include:

●having components that assist or encourage trainees to understand Maori students'

cultural influences;

●examining the social and cultural differences between teachers and Maori pupils;

●training in teaching strategies that offer learning experiences relevant to Maori

students' own contents; and

●encouraging trainees' belief that their teaching can make a difference for students.

The government's Tertiary Education Commission (TEC) (2002) states a number

of strategic priorities that will govern accreditation and funding of tertiary institutions

over the next five years. They feature a cluster of objectives that "contribute to the

achievement of Maori development aspirations", including:

●tertiary educational leadership that is effectively accountable to Maori communities

●strong and balanced Maori staff profiles with the tertiary education system

●quality programmes that recognise te ao Maori (Maori world) perspectives and

support the revitalisation of te reo Maori (Maori language).

The Ministry's latest draft Statement of Tertiary Education Priorities (2004) rein-

forces these objectives, and sums them up in the national goal of "strengthening

Maori development'.

At the local level Christchurch College of Eduction engages with Ngai Tahu who

hold mana whenua (authority that springs from the land, and involves trusteeship of

the land) over most of the South Island and who are the sole Treaty partner to the

Crown in their region. In 1998 all four of the key tertiary institutions in greater

Christchurch joined with Ngai Tahu in establishing Te Tapuae o Rehua as a company

that would "enable a more co-ordinated and co-operative approach to increase the

number of Maori participating in tertiary education" (Te Tapuae o Rehua, 2002). The

company continues to be an active partner in determining strategic directions for

the College. One outcome of this partnership was the appointment of a kaiwhaka-

haere, or leader in Maori strategic direction, at the senior management level.

At the level of schools, Ngai Tahu has established an Memorandum of

Understanding with the Ministry of Eduction. This commits both parties to the

achievement of a number of specific educational outcomes for Maori, whose num-

bers in proportion to the population as a whole are steadily increasing. Among the

expectations that that have been established are the following:

●by 2004 every school will have established a relationship with its local branch of

Ngai Tahu, and involve parents in the education of their children;

THE TREATY, THE INSTITUTION AND THE CHALKFACE

●there will be monitoring of Ngai Tahu participation in early childhood education,

success in reading, writing and maths, secondary school retention and achievement,

suspension rates, te reo acquisition, and qualifications;

●by 2008 the performance of Ngai Tahu students will show they are achieving

equal to or better than the general population.

The power of schools to deliver to these outcomes will depend in no small part on

the preparedness of teachers to relate to Maori students and to their families. As a

pre-service and in-service educator of teachers our college has a clear role in preparing

teachers to develop understandings that come from Maori as well as Pakeha relation-

ships and to be able to meet these expectations.

THE BICULTURAL PROJECT IN THE COLLEGE

In response to these challenges the College set up an exploration of the needs of

College staff and of the strengths and shortcomings of the system. The working party

developed a set of recommendations that were duly accepted by the senior management

team as strategic goals (Te Aika and Greenwood, 2002). They are:

●recognition of the Treaty partnership by working with Ngai Tahu to deliver on

their priorities as well as existing ones,

●development of courses that provide students, and staff, with understandings of

Treaty obligations,

●development of programmes in Maori language and protocol for staff and students

with different levels of existing knowledge,

●creation of a physical and social environment that is culturally appropriate and

welcoming,

●recruitment, retention and continuing professional development of staff who are

Maori and also of staff who have bicultural capabilities,

●development of curriculum content that is up to date and relevant to Maori and to

bicultural development,

●support and allocation of funding for Maori research projects,

●Accountability for the planning and delivery of these above stated goals.

To implement these goals the College allocated a staffing resource, and we, the

authors, were appointed as Joint Co-ordinators of the Project.

The pages that follow provide an illustrative example of our task by describing

how we are developing the courses that are to provide students, and staff, with under-

standings of Treaty obligations. We describe the consultative processes and the

planning we have undertaken to determine the purpose, content and delivery style of

these courses, and we give an account of the practice of the first eighteen months.

An example of our processing of change

The need for Treaty courses had emerged from feedback to the working party by

staff, by students who are concerned about the lack of application to present classroom

needs in existing courses that deal with the Treaty, and by the Maori community who

note the unpreparedness of beginning teachers to create effective relationships with

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

students and their families. The feedback has been aligned with the demands of the

TEC, Te Puni Kokiri documents and the Memorandum of Understanding.

At the same time it was evident that there were also a number of staff in the College

who considered courses about the Treaty either a waste of time or unnecessarily

divisive. In addition there are groups within the College who feel they have a strong

ownership of the material that might go into such courses, either because they have

actively taught Treaty history or anti-racism, or because of their familiarity with

existing models.

The first step was to engage some of the key stakeholders in a preliminary discus-

sion, so establishing the first cycle of our participatory action research. Members of

this group in turn have met, formally or informally, with others of shared interest and

developed overlapping and expanding spirals of discussion.

Our first group contained College staff from each of the sectors of pre-service

teacher education and members of the Maori community. All came with substantial

experience in this field. In terms of purpose the dual themes that emerged were:

to prepare our students to meet Treaty obligations in their schools, and

to be effective in creating learning situations that lead to success for Maori students.

The development of relationships was repeatedly identified as a crucial component.

The most common failure by teachers was not so much a lack of knowledge of facts but

of the skills to develop meaningful relationships with Maori pupils and their families.

From this central focus, a number of salient aspects of content were identified. It

was felt to be important to start with the present situation, and future expectations

rather than focusing primarily on the past, though factual knowledge of history is

clearly needed. Some knowledge of language is required but it needs to be strongly

targeted towards teachers' ability to pronounce their students'names and to approach

the Maori words they will meet in their work with respect and confidence. They need

to be able to meet Maori language without relegating it to something outside the

frame of normal classroom discourse. Knowledge of protocols, or tikanga , is also

important, but once again teachers need to be able to relate these concepts to the

content areas of their curriculum and to their normal classroom behaviours rather

than placing them on the side. Learning how to relate to Maori is the main area that

needs development.

It became evident that a Treaty course might provide a starting point for some of

this learning, but there is a real need for professional studies and for curriculum areas

to incorporate these principles as well. That realisation again pointed to the need for

professional development of all College staff so that they could understand these

goals and feel equipped to deliver on them.

When we came to discuss styles of delivery there was a considerable amount of

teasing out of the advantages and downfalls of inclusive delivery, as opposed to

separation into Maori and Pakeha groups, and of ways in which all participants could

feel safe and honoured at the same time as they might be challenged. A further point

that emerged was that in terms of staff workshops there is a need to get participants

to link their selected professional development directly to outcomes they will nominate

and that would be reflected in their changed practice. Robertson (2000) identifies

THE TREATY, THE INSTITUTION AND THE CHALKFACE

reality-checking as the third "R" in participatory action research. Our staff are being

confronted by Ministry and other regularity demands for changed practice: we see

our role as developing processes that will help them meet those demands with a sense

of personal success.

The next stages of our process involve engagement with students and with begin-

ning teachers to discuss how equipped they feel to cope with Treaty obligations in a

contemporary classroom and what they perceive their learning needs to be, and with

staff across the College to facilitate their development of curriculum content. In this

process we are coming to understand our own role as provocateurs, as facilitators,

and also as people who stand back and simply encourage other staff who are willing

to explore and develop their own progress towards implementing Treaty goals.

Knowing which role to take when, is however still part of our own learning.

Learning, breaking down old learning, and art

This past year we worked with groups of staff and with first year teacher education stu-

dents in primary and early childhood programmes. We set out to create programmes

that would avoid conceptual incongruities between talking about the importance of

relationships and empowerment for teaching Maori students and teaching the needed

background information in ways that were didactic and possibly alienating. The student

participants had to attend in order to gain credits for what was a compulsory course.

However, within that constraint we sought to develop a learning situation where

honesty could be possible, trust could grow, imagination could be brought into play,

multiple possibilities could be explored and success would be experienced and

celebrated.

We describe the philosophy and process of these workshops more fully elsewhere

(Greenwood and Brown, 2003, 2004). Here we want to briefly describe some of

the things we have learned from these workshops and that we plan to carry forward

to the next cycles of our project.

One of the first things we found was that when participants were able to take

control – even within the limits of the resources provided – of their own research into

history they were very open to the discoveries they made. When these discoveries

challenged their previous assumptions, participants were willing to address the

challenge. Often reflections would involve statements such as; "In the beginning

I thought …, but when I found out about … I realised …" Because participants were

not called upon to accept ideas that were given to them by authority they did not

appear to have a need to defend their existing ideas. On the contrary they became

eager to learn more.

The second key principle that emerged from the first stage of our work was the

value of the group. Most of the work was done in small groups, with participants able

to choose their work mates and whether or not they wanted to try new groupings as

the work progressed. As we expected, the small group gave participants a supportive

context in which to bounce around emerging ideas and to argue without the involve-

ment of a 'teacher' and without the public exposure of whole group discussion. That

seemed to make it easier to shift ground. We were pleasantly surprised by the extent

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

to which the small groups provided motivation for inquiry and challenged initial

ideas. By the second day participants would be planning, problem solving and critically

reflecting within their own groups, and would rarely turn to us for clarification or

endorsement.

A third discovery was about the value of art processes. We initially chose to

provide art making opportunities (visual and dramatic) because we saw art as a

means of opening up different expressive and discursive pathways, and we hoped

these would allow our participants to bypass some of the verbal and circular argu-

ments they were used to falling into. As the workshops progressed we would notice

that the participants would dive into the art materials with increasing confidence,

that the art processes did indeed appear to allow participants to focus on the mean-

ings that were emerging from their research rather than on discursive argument, that

they provided a vehicle for collaboration, and that final feedback often highlighted

the participants pleasure in working in this way.

Emergent themes in the project

At this point in our work we would like to share a number of the emergent under-

standings about the nature of our project as a whole, and where it fits into Maori as

well as western concepts of knowledge and research.

The participatory action research approach has engaged us in a process of consul-

tation and knowledge building that has parallels on the marae (the ground that is the

focal meeting place of a tribal community). Discussion on the marae is public and

issues that concern the community are discussed by all those who claim a part in that

community. Talk may begin with oppositional viewpoints, but it slowly works to

consensus as participants critically reflect on the experiences others bring to the

debate as well as their own. The cycles of action, reflection and reformulation not only

continue on that marae itself, but are taken out to other groups where they create new,

yet interacting, cycles of exploration. Knowledge is built by survey of previous lega-

cies of experience, often through oral records, and by the addition of new situations

to explore. So, as we in this project turn to what we describe as action research in the

context of western academia, we are also turning to marae practice. We are working

within the arena where Maori and Pakeha perspectives of knowledge overlap.

The recognition and development of relationships has repeatedly emerged as a central

issue. Whanaungatanga is the term often used to express this theme. Whanaungatanga

describes not only relationships, but also the obligations and expectations that come

through relationships, and the interdependence of the group. With relationships

comes an expectation of manaakitanga, the practical application of respect, support

and nurturing. Treaty understandings are based on partnership: positive partnership

invokes this rich understanding of the concept of relationship. To achieve its desired

role in educating teachers to do justice to their Maori students, the College needs to

enter into this kind of relationship with its community. Staff need to develop collabo-

rative relationships with each other in order to bring the College's strategic goals into

reality. Our graduating students need to know how to enter into these relationships

with students and their families. The concept of manaakitanga within relationships

THE TREATY, THE INSTITUTION AND THE CHALKFACE

acknowledges the need for all the parties to be nurtured. Teachers, be they the staff at

College, or their graduates in the field, also need to be supported so that they feel free

to engage with today's bicultural challenges and to take responsibility for their own

development. And Pakeha need and enjoy liberation, just as much as Maori. Personal

shift has to accompany systemic shift.

We find that the project we are engaged in brings up people's fears, uncertainties,

enthusiasms and angers as well as their intellectual responses. In the first instance,

we are dealing with people and people are multi-faceted. We are reminded that we

need to work with all the aspects of personality not only in our action processes but

also in our reflection. Maori description of personality invokes five aspects: hinengaro

(mind), ngakau (emotions), wairua (spirituality), tinana (body), whanaungatanga (kin-

ship connections). Within the model of participatory action and action research, tinana

may refer to the practical and material embodiments of action, and whanaungatanga

both to the community whose interests the action and the research serves and to the

community of knowledge-holders that we relate back to as we reflect on our work.

The work we do involves emotional processing as well as intellectual processing,

and it evokes our unmapped instinctive responses to what we understand to be wider

spiritual truth. We need to acknowledge and utilise all of these.

Finally, throughout this chapter we have talked about biculturalism, and we have

not mentioned multiculturalism. Mainly this is because the Treaty defines our national

character in terms of the sovereignty of indigenous and colonising cultures. Honouring

both these cultures in practice in our classrooms is our focus. However, this focus

does not ignore the multicultural nature of our classrooms. Immigrant children of

necessity learn to relate to Pakeha culture because it is embodied in the mainstream.

They also need to be supported to relate to Maori culture. Moreover, teachers repeatedly

find that as they come to understand Maori cultural needs and aspirations more deeply,

they also become much more sensitive to the backgrounds, language preferences,

learning styles, and personal needs of all their students. Biculturalism is not a denial of

multiculturalism, rather it is platform on which multicultural respect can be built.

CONCLUSION

At the beginning of this chapter we suggested that there are both simple and complex

answers to the questions: what do Maori want from education and how do we as

teacher educators meet their needs and expectations?

The simple answer to the first question, we suggested, is for their children to fly.

The more complex answer to this question is to some extent laid out in documents

such as the Memorandum of Understanding, Te Puni Kokiri's Report and the TEC

priorities. However the depth of the statements made in those documents needs to be

explored more fully through relationships and dialogue.

The simple answer to the second question is that we need to develop effective rela-

tionships with Maori that will allow us to show our student teachers how to collaborate

with Maori parents and communities and so empower the Maori, Pakeha, and new

immigrant children in their classrooms. The more complex answer involves a significant

JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

amount of learning and the negotiation of often quite complicated expressions of

need and expectation. It also involves the bringing together of people who may initially

hold quite opposing points of view and who bring their emotional as well as their

rational responses to the discussion. It requires a participatory process of action and

investigation to flesh out initial answers. Once again relationships and dialogue are

crucial.

We offered the image of the kite. Nylon and silk are not the only materials kites are

made of. Paper, flax, raupo and reeds are also extensively used. Different materials

have different characteristics which we need to know thoroughly in order to assist the

kite to fly. The wind may not be something we can control, but we need to learn to

recognise the characteristics of each breeze. Then our kites may not stay grounded.

They will soar.

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JANINKA GREENWOOD AND LIZ BROWN

FROM TEACHING TO LEADERSHIP

The past

In days of old, when teachers were bold, schools were simple places. Teachers delivered,

in oracular fashion, the curriculum they thought suitable to their pupils, whose role it

was to receive it. Schools had small staffs, Head Teachers taught regularly, their

deputies nearly always had full teaching time-tables. Education was locally adminis-

tered, with few other than very general central government guidelines, funding was

single stream. Historically, schooling developed in this way reflecting its origins

from the time when education was family and community based. While in present

days such a view may be seen as quaint, one of the writers experienced such schools

in London in the 1940's and 50's. Schools at that time and later were also simple in

terms of facilities and resources. He learnt his early number and word skills on a sand

tray and a slate, and used toilet paper [which in those days appeared to be designed

for the purpose] for tracing maps. The secondary school he attended had no library

and no duplicator. Courses were delivered via a single, often shared, textbook, aug-

mented by the eager pupil with trips to the local library. Later on he taught P.E. drama

and craft in a classroom with double desks screwed to the floor. The most common

form of curriculum delivery was teacher dictation. Lest this sound like a tale of woe,

the writer has always appreciated his schooling, which would appear not to have sig-

nificantly handicapped his career progress and life.

TODAY

Present day English schools provide a stark contrast. We have gathered some indica-

tion of the extent of the growing number and complexity of leadership roles and

duties of teachers from schools participating in research projects the authors have

worked on. In many secondary schools few teachers only teach. For example, a list-

ing of the 68 teachers in one reveals only 16 [24%] without a significant leadership

role or roles. These include the Leadership Team consisting of: a Head Teacher, three

Deputy Heads, three Assistant Deputy Heads and a Senior Manager, together with

Heads of Year and Subjects, with Seconds in Charge. Leadership listings or plans are

often very detailed, for example, in another similar school the team consists of:

●Head, Learning and ethos

●Deputy Head, Learning and teaching

●Deputy Head, Learning and curriculum

IVAN REID, KEVIN BRAIN AND LOUISE COMERFORD BOYES

6. WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

GONE TO BE LEADERS, EVERYONE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 79–92.

●Senior Assistant Head, Learning and learning support

●College Manager, Facilitating learning

●Assistant Head, Learning and community

●Assistant Head, Learning and inclusion

●Assistant Head, Learning and behaviour

●Assistant Head, Learning and pastoral support Key Stage 3

●Assistant Head, Learning and pastoral support Key Stage 4

●Assistant Head, Learning and achievement

Each of these is followed by a list of between 10 and 19 specific responsibilities.

Indeed, the Staff Handbook lists almost 250 roles and responsibilities in a hopefully

comprehensive A-Z that are carried out by teachers.

While smaller in scale Primary schools display a similar pattern. They are required

to have Head Teacher and Deputy, Co-ordinators for each of the seven National

Curriculum Subjects and for Key Stages 1 and 2. Consequently, in the large number

of such schools with less than 11 teachers the roles have to be combined. But this is

but the tip of an iceberg, since the schools have a large number of less formal leadership

roles to be undertaken. Most will have a role in respect to special educational needs

(SEN) provision and the deployment of teaching assistants. Those involved with

Government initiatives, such as Education Action Zones (EAZs), Excellence in Cities

Partnerships, Federations, Networked Learning Communities and the like will have

leaders for these. In some cases these create several further roles related to aspects of

the initiatives, for example, parental involvement, ICT, continuing professional

development (CPD), accelerated learning, boy's and ethnic underachievement, etc.

LEADERSHIP OR MANAGEMENT?

Our use of the term leadership for what traditionally has been seen as management is

more than justified in contemporary English schooling. The shift in usage is clearly

epitomised by the setting up of the National College of School Leadership and the

term's adoption by many schools. The shift might be assumed to have implications of

a change in schools' regimes and the style of relationships within them. This is

implicit in the literal meanings of the words: to manage is to be in charge of/ to

administer; to lead is to show the way/ to guide. The extent to which these implica-

tions were intended, or have been realised, is open to speculation. Our experience

across a number of schools indicates that the full range of perspectives derived from

both terms exist and often co-exist.

HOW DID WE GET WHERE WE ARE? FROM NEO LIBERAL

TO NETWORK MARKET

Some of the change from teaching to leadership is the result of the increased size of

schools, caused by an increased child population [post war baby boom], urbanisation

and the closure of large numbers of small schools deemed to be uneconomic,

together with the rapid development and adoption of technology. Most, however, is

IVAN REID ET AL.

the result of central government policy implementation, and this is the central concern

of this chapter. Space precludes more than a passing reference to the precursors to the

main epoch reviewed here. Major among these were:

●Moves towards comprehensive secondary schooling from the 1960's.

●The raising of compulsory period of schooling from 10 to 11 years in 1972/3.

The proliferation of leadership roles in schools emerges from the 'educational

revolution'(Jones, 2003) of the nineteen eighties that was set in train by Conservative

governments between 1987 and 1997. It attempted to restructure the whole educa-

tional infrastructure of the social democratic post-war settlement through creating an

educational market along neo-liberal economic lines. The basic governing principles

can be summarised following Ball (2001, p. 46) as:

●Choice and competition. The commodification and consumerisation of education;

●Autonomy and performativity. The managerialisation and commercialisation of

education;

●Centralisation and prescription. The imposition of centrally determined assessments,

schemes of work and classroom methods.

These essential characteristics were enshrined in the 1988 Education Reform Act

(ERA) and reinforced by subsequent acts and government circulars.

Choice and competition between schools were promoted through:

●providing parental choice of school (subject to available places);

●ensuring schools published Standard Attainment Test scores; and

●the introduction of a per pupil school funding formula.

These changes ensured that schools competed for pupils, via parental choice,

based primarily on performance.

Autonomy and performativity were promoted by the creation of the local manage-

ment of schools, achieved by devolving education budgets to individual schools,

together with the creation of Grant Maintained Schools – schools which could opt

out of LEA control, providing a majority of parents supported the move. In addition

to promoting autonomy these introduced a further element of diversity and choice in

provision, as did the later creation of Specialist Schools. Performativity was encour-

aged by creating a market in which autonomous schools competed to attract pupils

through parental choice which would be exercised primarily on the basis of how

successful schools were in achieving high levels of pupil attainment.

Centralisation and prescription were reflected in the introduction of a National

Curriculum, ensuring that a standard, quality assured product was delivered to

consumers. The National Curriculum paved the way for the introduction of perform-

ance league tables and Ofsted inspections (from 1993) which further promoted

performativity. Ofsted became the vehicle through which schools were made

accountable to government for the delivery of a pre-set curriculum and defined and

prescribed the quality of management and teaching.

The creation of an educational market has had profound implications for management

and teaching in schools. First, it increased the range of managerial functions schools

had to fulfill. The devolution of budgets to schools resulted in them undertaking

functions that were previously undertaken by continuing professional development

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

(LEAs). For example, Gunter (2002, p. 151) lists headteachers becoming responsible

for: bidding for resources, buying in training and consultancy, competitive tendering

for cleaning and canteen staff, hiring, firing, promoting of staff, installation of oper-

ation of performance management systems, and selection, recruitment, retention,

discipline and exiting of pupils. These required new managerial functions to be

carried out by both teaching and non-teaching staff. Second, as schools became more

autonomous and business like, so the development of specific management and lead-

ership skills became more important and a separation opened up between management

and teaching staff. This explains the proliferation of management training courses.

Third, the introduction of the National Curriculum and Ofsted inspection created a

demand for new middle management posts such as Key Stage and subject co-ordinators

and helped to transform the work of class teachers by inculcating the practices and

culture of target-setting, action planning, monitoring and assessment. In this way,

teaching was 'de-professionalised' as good teaching increasingly became defined as

the delivery of the National Curriculum, in carefully prescribed ways, to meet narrow

educational outcomes, thereby increasing the range of 'managerial'functions of teach-

ers in planning, administration and assessment. New quangos were set up to control the

curriculum and prescribe its content (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) and to

control and change the training and work of teachers (Teacher Training Agency) and

were intended to embed the model of teacher as curriculum deliverer.

Not surprisingly, as managerial functions increased, new middle management and

senior management positions were created, teachers' workloads changed, the number

of non-teaching staff employed in schools increased and schools became more

complex organisations. However, this trend toward complexity rapidly accelerated in

the move toward the networked market, which is a developing product of the New

Labour Government's ongoing drive to raise standards, begun in 1997.

New Labour identified the raising of educational standards as its number one priority

this being simultaneously seen as the key to creating economic growth in the flexible,

knowledge-based economies of the 21st century, and promoting social inclusion by

creating pathways out of poverty. This view places education at the heart of social and

economic policy, because developing the knowledge and skills of individuals both

secures their employability and produces the human capital necessary for economic

success in post-industrial economies. This is assumed to automatically lead to social

inclusion.

Education is the key to creating a society which is dynamic and produc-

tive, offering opportunity and fairness to all … learning can unlock the

treasure which lies within us all. In the 21st Century, knowledge and

skills will be the key to success. Our goal is a society in which everyone

is well educated and able to learn throughout life. Britain's economic

prosperity and social cohesion both depend on achieving that goal.

(DfEE, 1997, p. 9)

The New Labour approach to raising standards retained and reinforced the core

principles of previous Conservative governments' market-based reforms: per capita

IVAN REID ET AL.

funding for schools; the devolution of school budgets; differentiation between types

of schools; promotion of selection in some areas; use of school performance league

tables; setting of narrowly-defined attainment targets; and the instruments of school

inspection. In addition New Labour's 'Third Way'approach added:

●the promotion of collaborative networks and partnerships between schools and

between other 'partners' e.g. business, community groups, statutory and non

statutory services, in order to raise standards;

●a focus on raising standards in deprived or disadvantaged areas, to ensure 'excellence

for all', through the promotion of targeted initiatives designed to raise the social

capital of individuals, families and communities in deprived areas.

These two additional principles modify, rather than transform, the neo-liberal

market of the Conservatives by promoting a networked market. This is a market in

which competition between schools is retained but attempts are made to:

●encourage collaboration between clusters of schools, in order to promote the

development and dissemination of best practice, encourage the sharing of

resources and develop common solutions to educational problems;

●create new forms of partnerships between schools and other stakeholders in the pri-

vate, public and voluntary sectors that will open up schools to sources of innovation

and result in the creation of dense networks of support, on which schools can draw

to provide support structures for disadvantaged or disaffected pupils and their

families;

●situate the school as a community resource that is at the centre of a learning

community providing the social capital – networks, support structures, contacts

and relationships – that parents and pupils in deprived areas are assumed to lack;

These involve attempts to create social capital networks that can be exploited to

help individuals, families, schools and the wider community, in order to raise levels

of achievement.

Pupil and family support is provided in a wide range of forms, e.g. learning mentors,

learning support units, extended study support, promotion of parental involvement

and family literacy programmes. Teachers'and schools'support networks are created

both in and between schools through the increase in non-teaching staff and support

services, e.g. teaching assistants, learning mentors, learning support units and behaviour

improvement teams, and by promoting collaborative work between schools, and

between schools and other institutions, through initiatives such as Sure Start, EAZs,

Networked Learning Communities and Excellence in Cities (EiC). Community support

is provided through the promotion of the school as the centre of local community

provision, as reflected in EiC Partnerships and Extended schools, which provide a

range of educational and welfare support functions for the local community. The

Education Act 2002 gave school Governing Bodies the power to provide community

facilities for the benefit of pupils, their families and people who live and work in the

locality.

Michael Barber, Head of the Government's Performance Unit, illustrated the role and

benefits of collaborative partnerships in the following description of the government's

EiC programme.

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

EiC is based firmly on the belief that schools working together, collabo-

ratively, can achieve more for pupils, parents and communities than

schools in isolation … by working with others to share best practice,

tackle common problems and offer specialist opportunities to other

pupils from a range of schools each school can help to enhance perform-

ance across an area … Each pupil should see him or herself as a member,

not just of a specific school community, but of a wider learning-community

committed to his or her success.

(Barber, 2001, p. 30)

A similar logic underpins the creation of an extended school in every LEA. Such

schools will house multi-agency workers and support services in an attempt to pro-

vide support for pupils, families and communities that will help overcome barriers to

educational success.

As can be seen from the discussion above, the network market phase of educational

reform further diversified and fragmented schooling, resulting in a high level of insti-

tutional variation and complexity. Diversity was furthered through the creation of new

types of school, e.g. Specialist, Beacon and City Academies, and the encouragement of

different forms of provision for groups of pupils, e.g. Gifted and Talented, and new

forms of collaborative partnerships. As the DfES argued, 'this quiet revolution is mak-

ing our schools unrecognisable compared to the staffing picture even of 10 years ago'

(2002, p. 25).

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGE FROM

TEACHING TO LEADERSHIP

There is a range of consequences not only for teachers, but also for school, pupils,

parents, and local and national policy makers and implementers. Here we concentrate

on some of the consequences for teachers and their education and training.

Individual teachers

Most people with knowledge of English schools are aware of how overloaded and com-

plex teaching has become in recent years. Here we illustrate the situation as portrayed

by two experienced teachers in in-depth interviews. In our experience their views are

shared by many in their profession.

H is a mainstream primary school teacher with 6 years experience. In addition to

being a classroom teacher contracted for 27.5 hours a week, she has whole school

responsibility and leadership for the coordination and management of Literacy. This

amounts to some 15 hours additional work. The coordination of literacy is very com-

plex. H feels that the workload is overwhelming, everything is crisis managed and

that has a negative impact on her ability to teach. There is also pressure from outside

agencies that affect how she feels about her work as the leader of a core subject:

It stresses me out that I am always in the position of having to explain

myself to outside bodies: a feeling of impending doom of everything

IVAN REID ET AL.

potentially crashing down around my ears: Ofsted, the pressure of being

a Beacon Status school, SATs, league tables … all those things that

demand that I co-ordinate and lead in a exemplary fashion.

H undertakes this demanding role with no formally recognised management status, no

contractual agreement to do so, no financial remuneration or non-contact time, or time

in lieu. She also manages and co-ordinates Art and Design, and is responsible for

assessment in Key Stage 1. To remain on top of her job H estimates that she works in

excess of 60 hours a week and uses the holiday to catch up, mainly on administration .

She sees her school shifting towards a production line delivery of governmental

initiatives, rather than being an organic and autonomous body within which pupils

grow and develop. As she put it:

At the end of the key stages, pupils have really missed out on a broad and

balanced curriculum, it's a constant catch-up until SATs, then afterwards

everyone's too tired to enjoy the rest of year. Its so constraining because

you can't really respond to what's going on in schools.

As Literacy Strategy Coordinator (as opposed to the English Coordinator of the old

days) H feels responsible for the performance of every child in the school.

I know how I would ideally like to manage a core subject but I just phys-

ically can't without becoming a complete workaholic and burning out.

In summing up the professional consequences of her multiple leadership responsibilities

H concludes that they:

…impinge on my ability to plan for, monitor and assess my class effec-

tively. I sometimes have no choice but to do the bare minimum in order

to be able to grab time for subject co-ordination, because there is no

allocation for this within my contracted hours but there is an expectation

that I will excel at it, and contribute to the continued Beacon Status of

the school.

And of the personal consequences:

Lack of sleep due to overwork, I can't relax my brain, I often can't sleep

because I'm planning and then worrying about what I have to do. I am

not able to do a lot of the things I would like to do in the evenings or at

the weekend because I'm too tired, or, actually, am too fed up. I feel

guilty when I go out at night in my own time during the week because

I know that I have so much still to do, but even working till ten o'clock at

night still doesn't get me anywhere.

R is a mainstream secondary school teacher with 17 years experience who has two

additional responsibilities: 2nd in charge of the Maths Department and the School's

Examinations Officer. She is not part of the Senior Management or Middle

Management teams. Recently, the Government has recommended that the role of

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

Examinations Officer should be a full time administrative post of 27.5 hours a week

and not carried by a mainstream teacher as an additional responsibility, but R does

this alongside teaching Maths in KS3 and 4, Business Studies in KS4 and the

Advanced Vocational Certificate of Education in KS5: her teaching commitments

equal 19 hours of timetabled contact time a week, not including cover for absent

colleagues. To this must be added the directed time hours for meetings and non-

contact time. The time R spends in school exceeds 50 hours a week, and on average

some 70 hours a week doing her job, only 19 hours [less than a third] of which is

spent with pupils. As she pointed out:

I am always being called out of class … typical interruptions to my lessons

include being brought post; pupils coming in with exam admission

related problems; staff coming in with queries about exams, not to mention

pupils coming in for clarification or equipment if I have had to set them

off because their teacher is absent. I have to carry a mobile phone and

effectively be 'on call'. In exam season, I can miss up to half of any

lesson I am supposed to be teaching. This is no good for pupils'education,

sometimes the pupils themselves comment on the level of interruptions

we suffer.

Having said that, R also recognised that her leadership role in the Maths Department

has positive benefits for the pupils. Her attendance at CPD courses that introduce and

train staff for various initiatives and changes have had a positive effect on both her

own teaching and her leadership of this core subject.

R identified three types of leader/teacher at her school:

●those with formally agreed and financially remunerated leadership responsibilities;

●those with less formally agreed leadership roles, for which they had volunteered;

●those without formally or informally agreed additional responsibilities, who had

not volunteered.

She stated that there was no clear parity between workload and status and salary in

these categories. One result of this disparity was that some teachers felt impelled to

take on leadership roles, while others were not highly regarded because they never

volunteer to do any of the work that needs to be done.

R analysed what she saw as the motivation and/or the desire to move out of classroom

teaching into leadership roles as; because they feel that they could do better than what is

in place; seek financial incentives, higher status; to further their career; to gain respite

from the classroom, anything that reduces face to face contact. While most of these can

be seen as traditional reasons, the last is of particular interest, especially as R saw this as

having been heightened by the increasing advent of pupils'and parents'rights.

She also identified the role of government initiatives as a source of the higher

expectations of teachers:

the Government, you know … They are always bringing out new initia-

tives or guidelines, including what is a core or non-core subject, without

considering time implications.

IVAN REID ET AL.

While R maintained that she enjoyed working with pupils and got a lot of job satis-

faction from it, she regretted

that there is never enough time to really get to know them – it's like a

production line where you are instilling knowledge, where there is much

less of … life skills, values, the stuff you can do based on relationships.

Reflecting on her career she commented:

I used to feel on top of it and up to date, I never do now, which is to do

with the roles that I have in addition to being a teacher.

When asked about the personal consequences of her current workload, R stated;

Well a very constricted social life, I rarely have a free evening, I proba-

bly work nine out of ten evenings. Also most weekends. I'm really tired,

and I get really irritable towards the end of term. I guess I make super-

human efforts in bursts because I know I can collapse in the holidays,

then I'm usually ill for the first few days.

THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION AND

DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS FOR LEADERSHIP

Our impressions from the teachers we meet in the course of the Unit's work suggest, as

do the interviews above, that they feel not only undue pressure, or lack of choice in

undertaking leadership roles, but also unprepared for, and unsupported in, them. There

is then a clear need to review what is being done by way of changing this situation.

The Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status and Requirements for

Initial Teacher Training [TTA, 2002] have but a passing reference to leadership:

They [newly qualified teachers] work collaboratively … and, with the help of an

experienced teacher as appropriate manage the work of teaching assistants or other

adults to enhance pupils' learning. [para.3.3.13].

Hence, while some Initial Teacher Training (ITT) providers do provide preparation

for leadership roles within their programmes, they are not obliged to. Consequently,

newly qualified teachers must learn either on the job, through the induction process,

or seek in-service course opportunities, especially in respect to leading a curriculum

subject.

The continual redefinition or re-modelling of teacher's roles and responsibilities

beyond that of a closed classroom model has obvious and complex implications for

their professional preparation. For ITT providers there appear to be two extreme

strategies. The introduction of specialised routes to produce teachers ready to take up

specific leadership roles, which is improbable not least because of the human

resource implications for the education service. More likely is an attempt to provide a

general course on leadership that, together with subsequent training, will enable

these roles to be undertaken. While it can be envisaged that such courses could

be provided on the 4-year programmes, the post-graduate teacher training course

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

route is already overloaded and there are no plans to extend it. At present then

provision varies and is far from clear. Interviews with students about to enter the

profession reflect this situation, in general they report not feeling prepared for the

leadership roles they observe in schools, and as one put it, that:

College gives you the impression that leadership roles in school that you

might take up happen because that's what you choose.

However, they recognise that this is not the reality they face, and that schools often

do not have such luxury and have to load leadership roles onto unprepared and some-

times less than willing teachers [see also Reid and Thornton, 2000].

Initial teacher training gives us the basics … so really it comes down to

on-the-job learning … The level of support and leadership training that

you get is then at the level of individual school.

So despite all attempts to transform education into a networked marketplace, the

extent to which individuals are transformed into leaders seems to impact at the level

of the individual school once NQts are in post and continue a learning curve that for

a lucky few commenced on teaching practice. Some students through their place-

ments will be aware of, and have experience of, many of the current initiatives, others

will not.

Once in the field the provision of leadership training continues to be unsystematic.

There are opportunities for CPD in the field and the Unit evaluated one such pro-

gramme that was sponsored by an EAZ [Brain and Reid, 2001]. Its aims were that the

Zone's schools should have: A common approach to leadership; Collaboration and

networking; Enhanced knowledge and skills. We gathered evidence from:

Participants' pre-course personal audits; In-depth interviews with the course tutor

and members, and the EAZ Project Co-ordinator; the EAZ Project Co-ordinator's

observation reports at sessions and the course review.

Prior to the course teachers were asked if there were any specific areas or skills

that they hoped to improve. These are illustrated by the following typical quotations:

'Handling difficult situations with staff who do not meet deadlines, teach

well, etc.'. 'Assertiveness, achievement monitoring.' 'Communication,

time management''I'd just like to be a little more confident in my role as

team leader.' 'Priority and time management.' 'Managing uncooperative

colleagues.''Dealing with conflict.'

It was clear from the teachers' comments that the course was well received and seen

as valuable. Two teachers, for example, commented: It has given me insight into how

teams work together, and It has increased my awareness and confidence.

Relevance of course content

The course looked at basic management theories and explored practical techniques

for team building, planning and running meetings, and time-management. The

teachers clearly liked the practical aspects of the course. This was because, as one of the

IVAN REID ET AL.

teachers argued, they had come into leadership roles as experts in teaching, not

leadership. These roles were new and had not been part of their professional prepa-

ration, and neither was it provided for in school. At the same time, however, many of

the teachers already knew and were using many of the techniques. For example

teachers commented; a lot of the stuff, I'd worked out myself and I didn't learn

anything new as such, though they also said that the course had added to their skills.

The course tutor acknowledged the course content was basic and thought that it

could be developed to focus more specifically on issues relevant to school improve-

ment and management. The EAZ Project Co-ordinator was more critical of some of

the course content, arguing that the theories of management used were not directly

applicable to schools because schools are different from the organisations on which

the theories were based. Hence, teachers would have difficulty in applying them.

COURSE VALUE TO PARTICIPANTS

The interviews raised two beneficial features of the course for the teachers. First, it

validated what they were already doing and helped make them feel more confident in

their roles. As one teacher put it, it made me feel as if I was on the right lines. More

importantly perhaps, they felt that having been on the course enabled them to justify

themselves to colleagues. The tutor noted that they took all the literature they could

so that they could show their colleagues what they were saying was right.

Second, they enjoyed the opportunity to discuss issues of concern, to meet

colleagues in similar situations and find out what they were doing. The EAZ Project

Co-ordinator thought this might account for the fact that the teachers evaluated the

course so positively. After all, it provided a chance to get out of school and offload a

lot of their problems … wouldn't you feel better if I let you do that?

Teachers also commented on how little they knew about leadership practices and

roles in other schools. The course provided an opportunity to compensate for this.

Despite the teachers' enjoying and benefiting from the course, a consistent feature of

their comments was the need to provide courses for senior, as opposed to middle,

leaders. A frequently asked question on the course was are you going to do this

course for Heads and Deputy Heads? This probably arose from the participants

feeling that they knew how to do basic things, but that some/most of their senior

mangers did not.

COURSE EFFECT ON SCHOOL PRACTICE

The crucial and most difficult aspect is identifying the course's impact. The EAZ

Project Co-ordinator stated bluntly; When we asked the schools as part of the moni-

toring about people who had been on the course the comments were 'they came back

really enthused'but when we asked if it had made any difference in school the answer

was 'no'.

Real change depends on having time and resources, the support of senior staff

and the right kind of culture in school. However, teachers' comments can be

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

characterized as; we would suggest ideas to the Head and be told there was no money

or time to implement ideas and that they didn't have the power to change things in

schools. These views were confirmed as key issues in the interviews, as one teacher

argued; it doesn't matter what we learn unless we are used by senior management that's

what it's all about. Consequently, there is something of a 'Catch 22' situation here.

Leadership training is designed to initiate change in schools through the introduction of

new working practices. However, to a marked extent, the ability to initiate change

depends on having the right school culture and working practices in the first place.

Teachers or learning leaders in the Network Market

The creation of the network market in education is transforming schooling, schools

and teaching in complex, if not contradictory ways. The school as the site of educa-

tion is being restructured in the drive to raise standards, creating simultaneous

pressures towards standardisation and customisation in teaching and learning. On the

one hand, the standards drive reinforces the central importance of schools in deliver-

ing education and raising standards. It maintains the pressures of standardisation

through the National Curriculum, the literacy and numeracy strategies, league tables,

the instruments of inspection and audit, and centralising agencies such as the TTA,

QCA and the Standards and Effectiveness Unit at the DfES. On the other hand, the

modernisation of the education system in the drive to raise standards is creating a

bewildering array of diversity, in types of school, the organisational forms, services

and functions provided and consequent mixture of staff and range of roles. The cre-

ation of new types of school, such as, Specialist, City Academies and Extended 'full

service' schools, alongside the promotion of new organisation forms such as

Federations or Networked Learning Communities have produced distinct trends

towards customisation.

At the same time as teachers' work contexts change in this fashion, the

Government is attempting to remodel teaching. Teachers are urged to become leaders

in creating learning environments, to see themselves as facilitators rather than

providers, and as team members rather than individual performers. They are offered

a vision by central government in which teachers take responsibility for developing

positive learning environments, tailoring teaching to individual pupil's needs, and

drawing on a wide range of support staff in school and partners outside, who form

part of the learning community. Teachers are urged to innovate, share best practice

and develop a sound evidence base to inform practice by taking responsibility for

their own learning so that they can lead the way in removing barriers to learning and

finding solutions to learning challenges (DfES, 2003a, b & c). At the same time,

however, the objectives, goals and purposes of education are set for the profession by

central government, together with the definition of good teaching. Indeed, the cre-

ation of school learning networks, specialist schools and new teaching roles such as

Advanced Teachers – which, in part, seek to develop and disseminate best practice –

reinforces the tendency toward standardisation by promoting standard strategies

across the range of differing school contexts. These tensions reflect the simultaneous

pressures towards standardisation and customisation.

IVAN REID ET AL.

To date the government's remodelling of teaching has concentrated on efforts to

reduce teachers' administrative workload, developing the role of teaching assistants

to support curriculum delivery, and the introduction of new pay and performance

management systems (see, DfES, 2002). Teacher training formats have not developed

along the road of customisation, but rather remained standardised around the model

of teacher as curriculum deliverer. Similarly, CPD opportunities have been closely

tied to government strategies. The focus has not been on equipping teachers with the

skills to engage in professional self-development, to develop evidence based practice,

to run educational teams, to innovate or facilitate, but rather to prepare a generation of

teachers as technicians, or deliverers of set strategies.

A recent conference organised by the National College for School Leadership

about Networked Learning Communities illustrates some of the consequences of the

situation outlined above. In a workshop session some teachers commented on how

they had lost the art of innovation and self-development because they relied on

downloading lesson plans and formats from the QCA website. A couple of the more

experienced teachers remarked that newly qualified teachers often could not prepare

lessons without this kind of aid, because that is how they had been trained.

Despite Government rhetoric about transforming teaching and learning, it is not

yet clear that teacher training has adjusted to the network market, or addressed the

question of how teachers should be trained and structure their CPD in order to work

effectively and efficiently in schools which:

●are internally differentiated in complex ways for different kinds of pupils, following

different kinds of curricula;

●operate with 'learning teams' to deliver education which include teachers and a

range of support staff, some from external organisations, such as industry;

●vary enormously in organisational form and the extent to which they are set up to

offer limited or extended educational and social support services to the community,

potentially opening up new areas of responsibilities for teachers;

●link into a range of partnership or network arrangements to disseminate best practice,

share resources (including teachers) and develop common approaches to teaching

and learning issues;

●increasingly offer learning opportunities outside of school, such as the home, FE

colleges, the workplace, cyberspace and e learning.

An earlier version of this chapter appeared in Educational Studies 30 (3) (2004),

251–264.

REFERENCES

Ball, S. (2001) Labour, Learning and the Economy: A 'Policy Sociology', Perspective, in Fielding, M. (ed)

Taking Education Really Seriously, Four Years Hard Labour. London: Routledge, pp. 45–56.

Barber, M. (2001) High Expectations and Standards for all, No Matter What: Creating A World Class

Education Service in England, in Fielding, M. (ed) Taking Education Really Seriously, Four Years

Hard Labour. London: Routledge, pp. 17–41.

Brain, K. and Reid, I. (2001) An evaluation of the Middle Management Programme. SBEAZ Evaluation

Report 1, UERE: University of Bradford .

WHERE HAVE ALL THE TEACHERS GONE?

DfEE (1997) Excellence in Schools . London: HMSO.

DfES (2002) Time for Standards – Reforming the school workforce. London: HMSO.

DfES (2003a) Raising Standards and Tackling Workload: A National Agreement Time for Standards.

http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id  3479.

DfES (2003b) Excellence and Enjoyment: A Strategy for Primary Schools. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/prima-

rydocument/pdfs/DfES-Primary-Ed.pdf.

DfES (2003c) A New Specialist System: Transforming Secondary Education. http://www.teachernet.

gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id  4409.

Gunter, M (2001) Modernising headteachers as leaders An analysis of the NPQH, in Fielding. M (Ed)

Taking Education Really Seriously, Four Years Hard Labour, London: Routledge.

Jones, K. (2003) Education In Britain 1944 To The Present. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Reid, I. and Thornton, M. (2000) Why Students Choose Primary School Teaching as a Career. Centre for

Equality Issues in Education: University of Hertfordshire.

Teacher Training Agency (2002) Qualifying to Teach Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status

and Requirements for Initial Teacher Training. London: Teacher Training Agency.

IVAN REID ET AL.

SECTION TWO

STANDARDS AND ACCOUNTABILITY:

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE A GOOD TEACHER

AND HOW CAN WE MAKE IT HAPPEN?

"If we don't know where we're going, we will never know when we have

gotten there." – Mark Twain

INTRODUCTION

The desire for change in teacher education is everywhere. There is an almost universal

quest for greater teacher quality, and with it, a demand for higher quality teacher

education. The most prominent voice for making changes in teacher education has

been that of policy makers – those who both frame policies and those who enact them

into law. In seeking change, policy makers have asserted their right to unilaterally

make changes to the enterprise – marginalizing both scholars and practitioners. Even

when acknowledging a role for practitioners and scholars, they have tended to enact

changes at the national or federal level while leaving to others the need to fix programs

at the local or institutional level. As the conversation has become more national or

central in scope, criticism of preparation and professional development or continuing

education has intensified and support has declined. This has resulted in academics

and professionals being denied access to the conversation and the creation of a

substantial gap between policy maker and professional. Reclaiming a rightful role for

academics and professionals is imperative and the way to do this is to focus attention

at the local level.

In a world much more competitive economically and politically, there is a tendency

to move decision making away from the local and to the national level. In the developed

world, the quest for greater student learning and worker productivity has prompted

much attention to teaching and teacher education. In the United States as well as

elsewhere in the developed world there is a growing insistence that every facet of the

preparation and professional development of teachers be changed. The presumption

is that if only students had more academic learning their societies would be more

competitive economically. To accomplish this, it is presumed that schooling needs

to be changed and with it the way that teachers teach and the way they are prepared

to teach. It is now almost universally accepted that student learning is the key to

21st century economic success.

It is not surprising that politicians and policy makers are seeking new ways to prepare

and sustain good teachers given the current focus on pupil learning and the almost

universal disdain for current teacher training practices. In the United States, teacher

quality seems to be the top policy issue for national or federal educational policymakers

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

7. QUALITY IN TEACHER EDUCATION:

SEEKING A COMMON DEFINITION

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 95–112.

with efforts to recast the preparation and professional development of current and

future teachers. This same trend is occurring everywhere with international organi-

zations and national research entities examining every aspect of the preparation and

practice of highly qualified teachers. It seems like there is a universal effort to change

teacher education and with it a remarkable sameness to both the way the problem is

diagnosed and the solutions posed to remedy the problem. In this chapter, we attempt

to examine the centralization of decision making for teacher education in the United

States and the similarity of those decisions to those occurring in other political

entities. We will highlight the exclusion of professionals or academics from the

process and suggest the need for the community of academics and professionals to

reclaim a role and to pose a set of solutions. We suggest that this has to be done at the

local level, rather than the national level, and that the single measure of success will

be student learning gains of students in local classrooms and schools. Absent such

effort, politicians and policy makers at the national level will continue to marginalize

teacher educators and to assert their own solutions to the problem of attracting,

preparing, placing, supporting and sustaining the highest quality teachers in schools

everywhere.

CHANGE IN TEACHER EDUCATION

IS A UNIVERSAL DEMAND

When political leaders and education policy makers gather to talk about education,

the challenge of preparing high quality teachers is always at the top of the agenda. In

virtually every country in the world there are demands and expectations that teacher

education will change. The Chilean educator Beatrice Avalos has identified change

in teacher education as the most persistent policy demand by politicians with the

expectation that such changes will produce a generation of teachers capable of address-

ing the socio-economic needs of the particular nation or state. Avalos highlights the

structural changes underway in teacher education that are occurring everywhere

and questions when policy makers will turn to changing the substance of teacher

education.

The Education Testing Service's Preparing Teachers Around the World reinforces

this message. ETS gathered evidence from seven industrialized countries or, what they

termed, "high performing countries," and in their policy brief showed how pervasive is

the concept of change in teacher education in countries as diverse as Singapore and

Australia, Korea and the Netherlands. Their findings and conclusions parallel studies

either recently concluded or underway by many organizations and international donor

agencies. These and other international and national reports on teacher education high-

light the themes of quality and change in teacher education. All document the efforts

for change in teacher education but all of these studies also show that change, thus far,

has been limited to structural changes in teacher education (e.g., the efforts in much of

Asia to move away from the long history of offering teacher education in pedagogical

institutions and toward the preparation of teachers in comprehensive colleges and

universities) rather than directing efforts at the substance of teacher education.

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

In the United States there are discussions of both structural and substantive change

in the way that teachers are prepared and the way they are licensed or registered to

practice. There is substantial investment in preparing teachers in non-collegiate

settings and for specific assignments in particular schools. There are also efforts to

use licensure as a policy tool with policy makers seeking to shift the authority for

licensing away from states and to either a new national entity that would issue

national "passports" or to recast it as a matter of local school determination.

Reducing preparation time, centering the venue for teacher education away from the

university, making it a post-baccalaureate program, focusing on local student popu-

lations and their learning needs are efforts intended to transform both the form and

function of teacher education … That teacher education has achieved such importance

is a testimony to the potential power of professionals and practitioners in shaping

the future of teacher preparation and practice. If it was a "low-stakes" matter, no one

would care and policies would be directed elsewhere. Teacher educators should take

solace in the fact that for many it is of such "high stakes" importance.

The press for change in teacher education centers on how teachers should be

prepared. Policy makers are asking fundamental questions about the nature of train-

ing, the venue for such preparation and the content of the preparation program. The

real question that is being asked is whether teachers need training beyond coursework

in a discipline or school subject, i.e., should an academic major in a subject taught in

a primary or secondary school be sufficient to "qualify" one for teaching?

Policy makers assert that the most effective way to learn to teach is to observe suc-

cessful teachers and to practice the craft of teaching under the supervision of skilled

practitioners. Debates about the amount of time and the desired outcomes of initial

practice now occur with policy makers pushing a set of policies often grounded in

ideology rather than in evidence. Despite the insistence that raising the quality of

teaching is the goal, matters of efficiency and cost-saving dominate the dialogue.

While there is almost universal agreement that prospective teachers need to under-

stand and master a body of knowledge regarding how students learn and different

ways of interpreting and presenting subject matter knowledge to children and youth,

how future teachers should be prepared remains in much doubt. If you accept the

premise that there is need for initial teacher education, then questions arise as

whether teacher education should occur following the completion of a baccalaureate

degree or parallel to the attainment of that degree? Should it occur as part of a tran-

sition from college student to novice teacher in a professional development school?

Should it continue to be offered as a preservice program or be integrated into the

initial years of practice? Should we see it as "initial" and "one-time" or as a continuing

program of studies and practice? All of these questions focus on the how and leave to

later the what question - in terms of the substance of teacher education.

The earlier cited ETS study focuses attention on the "pipeline" of teacher candidates

or teacher education students enrolled in formal preparation programs. It essentially

argues that teacher education programs can meet the high quality expectations of the

policy makers and politicians, parents and the public by "regulating" the flow of students

into programs – by setting high admission requirements with necessary subject matter

QUALITY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

prerequisites – by setting high expectations for students enrolled in programs – by

requiring substantial clinical practice – and by setting even higher exit requirements.

They document efforts in the seven countries they studied to the use of teacher licen-

sure as a policy tool or instrument and then describe hiring policies and induction and

compensation schemes as other policy instruments to bring high quality individuals to

teacher education. They point to an array of policy targets (including teacher education

programs) and identify the many policy instruments available to policy makers and

bring understanding that teacher education is a part of a system – with the explanation

that teacher compensation schemes and other working conditions for practicing teach-

ers affect in meaningful ways the recruitment of high quality candidates into teaching.

Everywhere these policy debates are occurring. They are shaped, in part, by the reality

that there is a remarkable sameness about teacher education throughout the developed

world. This sameness is explainable, in part, because of what the Australian educator

Judyth Sachs has described as policy borrowing (Sachs, 2003). Professor Sachs points to

the seeming sameness of educational policy and practices everywhere and suggests that

it is due to "policy borrowing" – taking policies and practices from other national systems

and applying them to local or particular national needs. She points to the "convergence of

policy making" that is occurring as a result of the international exchange of ideas and the

influence of international donor agencies – particularly the World Bank. Sachs noted that

when policy elites gather together and identify policy problems (e.g., low quality of can-

didates in teacher education and high demand for quality teaching), they tend to arrive at

similar solutions. International assessments and comparisons reinforce this trend as do

the policies and practices of donor agencies, worldwide reliance on a small cadre of edu-

cational consultants, and the increasing communication across international boundaries

about matters of school policy and teacher education.

As a result, national, state and local policy makers borrow policies and approaches

to schooling from other countries and other industries. Policy borrowing has intensi-

fied as the world wide demand for better schools has accelerated. Prompting this has

been the worldwide effort to promote standards-based learning and to rely on stan-

dardized tests. Hargreaves has noted that "Standardized tests and texts have been at

the center of [a movement] … since the late 1980s [characterized by] centrally pre-

scribed curricula, with detailed and pressing performance targets, aligned assess-

ments, and high stakes accountability [in schools and students] (Hargreaves, 2003).

He describes it as part of a "new orthodoxy of educational reform worldwide" that

now focuses "on a limited number of tightly defined instructional priorities such as

literacy and mathematics used everywhere." As much as the movement has relied on

high stakes standardized testing, it has depended upon high quality teaching and this

has prompted a demand for new forms of teacher education that focus unrelentingly

on pupil learning and student achievement.

GAINING VOICE

One of the critical questions that teacher educators must confront is how they gain

recognition for the professional, technical and skill knowledge they possess. A reality

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

of the past dozen years is that teacher educators have been marginalized by the

process of educational change and excluded from the policy debates regarding new

forms of teacher education in many countries. While they have been engaged in

discussions regarding the internal quality of programs, a larger discussion has been

underway regarding the form and function of teacher education. That discussion has

occurred outside or external to the teacher education community. Often it has been

national in scope and highly political in nature. This condition prompts consideration

of why policy makers go-it-alone in these policy discussions. Why are they so

dismissive of teacher educators and their professional expertise when it comes to

framing new policies and practices for teacher education? It also raises questions

about how teacher educators gain recognition and credibility for such expertise.

Absent such assertions, the policy maker debates will continue to be about the exter-

nals of teacher education (its form and function) while the teacher educators will be

left to debate the merits of one approach over another and how to "fit" a prescribed

course of study into a set amount of time. Gaining such voice is every bit as important

as the efforts around the world to produce more highly qualified teachers!

One way to begin such claims is to address the matter of quality in teacher education.

So, what is high quality in teacher education? What is high quality in teacher educators?

What is the expert knowledge that teacher educators need to demonstrate to gain

necessary credibility for their efforts? The theme of expertise and professional knowl-

edge of teacher educators has to be seen as an under-girding concern for anyone

considering change in teacher education. The exploration of "high quality teacher

education" demands that teacher educators posit a set of the necessary skills and

knowledge that teacher educators must possess, the experiences they should have,

and the beliefs and commitments they must have about their students and their

responsibilities to their colleagues and the teaching profession. This is certainly not a

new endeavor but it is an important step in the process of regaining voice.

Teacher educators and the policy maker community can only reach the goal of

"high quality" teacher education by knowing what we want teachers to do in class-

rooms and schools. A consensus must be reached regarding what we expect graduates

of formal preparation programs to know, believe, and be able to do. Understanding our

responsibilities beyond formal or initial preparation and for the on-going education

of classroom teachers and principals has to be rooted in an understanding of what

teachers and principals must do in schools and other learning environments. Webster

defines the word quality as a degree of excellence; superiority in kind. We can only

reach the goal of excellence and superiority if we focus on the needs of children and

youth and the aspirations their parents hold for them. Consequently, a constant for us

is to seek agreement about the ends of teacher education – what is it that we want the

graduates of our programs to know, to believe and to be able to do. The American

writer Mark Twain once suggested, "If we don't know where we're going, we will

never know when we have gotten there."

The challenge is that quality in teacher education is such an elusive concept. Since the

inception of formal teacher training in Western Europe a century and a half ago there

have been repeated efforts to define quality in teacher education. From the earliest

QUALITY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

100

days of preparing teachers in France and Germany to the more recent efforts to

transform teacher education in the United States and Britain, there has been the quest

to define high quality in teacher education.

PROMOTING HIGH QUALITY TEACHER EDUCATION

IN THE UNITED STATES

In the United States, the matter of teacher quality is at the center of the current

debate about education reform and renewal. Yet, as a recent General Accounting

Office study of Teacher Quality notes, there is little consensus on what constitutes

effective or high quality teaching (Bright and Harmeyer, 2002). There is an

eminently understandable assumption that high quality teaching matters but the current

debate in the United States is about which measures should be used to determine

quality.

There has been the assumption by educational practitioners and researchers that

one or more of the following constitutes or contributes to effective teaching:

●years of teaching experience,

●possession of an advanced degree,

●the teaching assignment (whether it is in-field or out-of-field),

●whether the teacher candidate is licensed or certified,

●whether the beginning teacher graduates from an accredited teacher preparation

program,

●significant preparation in the subject (or academic preparation),

●on-going professional development, and

●candidate scores on various teacher tests and measures of verbal ability.

Despite what we have assumed was general agreement on these characteristics of

quality teaching, recent policy efforts have questioned the underlying evidence for

the claims that these conditions or characteristics matter. Recent meta-analyses of

the literature on teacher preparation and teacher performance have generally

questioned all of the assumptions held and concluded there is little if any research

evidence to support the research claims we have made. Due to the uncertainties of

the evidence available, the policy community has come to embrace a single criterion

for determining who is or is not an effective teacher – the ability of a teacher to

realize and maximize student achievement gains on various assessments of student

knowledge.

In the United States and many other national systems of education – pupil achieve-

ment has become the most important measure of teacher effectiveness (Plecki, 2000).

Given the dearth of solid research evidence about effective teachers or high quality

teaching, policy makers want better means of identifying quality teachers and have

embraced William Sanders' value-added methodology that purports to connect

teacher effects to student score gains over extended periods of time because they

believe it offers them a tool to make judgments about who is a high quality teacher

(Sanders, 1998).

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY AND

CHANGE IN TEACHER EDUCATION

In the United States, there are efforts to base policy on evidence that is defined as

"scientifically based" and a corresponding rejection of research methodologies and

research findings that lack significant validity and reliability. Those who are drafting

Bush administration policy proposals for various government initiatives for education

have embraced the belief that highly effective teachers are those who realize student

achievement gains and not other measures of student learning. They have also come to

rely on only two measures to describe the characteristics of highly qualified teachers –

teacher candidate scores on standardized tests of subject matter knowledge, and

degree attainment in a particular core academic subject. In the drafting of the signature

education policy for the Bush administration, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

(P.L. 107–110), the Bush administration officials employed these two characteristics or

indicators despite the lack of solid scientifically based research evidence that either mat-

ters and sought to describe highly qualified teachers as graduates of colleges and uni-

versities who possess a bachelor's degree in a core academic subject that the teacher

candidate intends to teach and/or passage of a state administered test in those same aca-

demic subjects.

The final provisions in NCLBA define a highly qualified teacher as [a person

who] has obtained full State certification as a teacher (including certification

obtained through alternative routes to certification) or passed the State teacher

licensing examination, and holds a license to teach in such State [and who has] not

had certification or licensure requirements waived on an emergency, temporary, or

provisional basis. Today, nearly four years after passage of this monumental law,

there is a concerted effort to redefine a highly qualified teacher as a college graduate

who passes a test of teacher knowledge with significant encouragement for individual

states aligning their state licensure provisions with NCLBA to focus on verbal ability

and a content major. There are also promises by the Bush administration to use the

pending reauthorization of the Higher Education Act (HEA) to further clarify the

meaning of a highly qualified teacher and to connect NCLBA with HEA.

The Bush administration has also signaled its intent to influence state boards of

education and other state agencies that control teacher licensure to adopt policies

more conducive to the provisions of NCLBA. Announced in the Education Secretary's

First Annual Report on Teacher Quality, those intentions represent a bold reach by

this administration into a policy arena that has traditionally been controlled by the

states (Paige, 2002). Using funding authorized in Title II, Part A of NCLBA , monies

now used by many states to address class-size reduction demands, the administration

intends to cause states to dramatically reshape state policy for teacher education.

Uncoupling courses in teacher education from state licensure requirements is a goal.

Approaches to defining highly

qualified teachers in the United States

The quest to define teacher quality in the United States is being pursued on a number

of fronts. While the Bush administration is clearly the dominant player in the game,

101

QUALITY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

102

there are hosts of others seeking to influence the definition of highly qualified

teacher. These pressures are having a marked impact on teacher education. In 2002,

the Secretary of Education released a status report on teacher education. That report,

Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge, which was mandated as part of the

statutory language of Title II of the Higher Education Act of 1998 (P.L.105–750),

concluded by calling upon states to develop new models of "teacher training" that are

"local," "based on the best alternative route programs of today," and that "produce teach-

ers with those skills that are in high demand." The report also called upon states to:

●end the "exclusive franchise" of schools of education and to curtail

the "shocking number of … mandated education courses to qualify

for certification,"

●assist state efforts to uncouple education school courses from state

licensure and make "attendance at schools of education … optional,"

●"streamline" licensure requirements to place a premium on verbal

ability and content knowledge,

●develop new and "challenging assessments" for teacher candidates,

and require "content area majors for prospective teachers."

(Paige, 2002)

Advocacy for the technician teacher

In the United States we are watching the impact of what are described as the so-called

"teacher education wars." Though many avoid the use of the war metaphor to

describe the current conditions of sides pitted against sides in an ideological struggle

for the future of teacher preparation, this is an image that emerges from reading the

positions of the various contestants on the national scene. Both sides claim a moral

high ground and both sides assert that if only teachers were prepared "this way" all

children would benefit. What was once a local matter or a matter for academics and

professionals to consider has risen to a national level with claims of righteousness

and morality in asserting a direction for teacher education. The contest is over

matters of whether teacher education should be centered on the campus or in the

schools (or done on the Internet or by a private provider of online services), the

appropriate mix of academic and pedagogical courses, the appropriate amount of

clinical experiences, the appropriate inclusion of attention to a child's well being and

the appropriate mix of K-12 practitioners with academics in providing training.

Champions of different stances gain adherents and demonize the other side.

Advocates on one side emphasize achievement over learning, offer the "good

enough" teacher and promote subject matter knowledge over pedagogy – the other

side urges a philosophy of progressivism and a psychology of constructivism and

argues that the centerpiece of a democratic society is its public schools. One side

promotes teacher centeredness while the other contends that the child has to be at

the center of good schooling. Different pedagogies and epistemologies under gird

these separate conceptions of teaching and teacher education as the essentialist

philosophy of William Bagley bumps up against the progressive ideology of

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

William Kilpatrick. Today essentialism is the ascendant philosophy, and it has gained

enormous political clout as its advocates have gained political power and have used

that power to attempt to reshape both teaching and teacher education.

The Director of the Institute for Educational Sciences promotes the idea that there

are two models for teacher education in the United States. One is the traditional or

professional model that prepares long-term career professionals (teachers who will

commit their careers to the education of young people) and the other is a technical

model that produces technicians who implement prescribed learning modules and

training packages. Grover Whitehurst has stated that the success of the No Child Left

Behind Act is dependent upon having enough "good enough teachers" who are

skilled at teaching a lesson, maintaining discipline, and ensuring that students do

well on whatever performance measure is used. He suggests that the technician

teacher needed to fulfill the intent of NCLBA is very different from the professional

teacher, the latter prepared in high quality teacher education programs, are caring,

competent and committed. Whitehurst contends that such professional teachers use

little of what is provided in a professional preparation program and present a costly

burden to high needs schools. Whitehurst made this clear at both the AACTE/CBE

STEP Conference, held in Washington, DC, June 6–9, and at a Research Seminar,

held at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, in Palo Alto, CA,

June 10–12, 2003. This was further elaborated at a Panel Meeting on Teacher Quality

impaneled by the Institute for Educational Sciences on December 16, 2003.

Whitehurst is calling for the examination of these two alternative models relative to

their effectiveness in closing the achievement gap (Whitehurst, 2003).

Another plank in the Bush administration's efforts for teacher education is to actively

encourage community colleges to develop full-fledged teacher education programs.

They are supportive of efforts to expand the mandate of those colleges to prepare both

para-professionals and highly qualified teachers and praise the capability of those insti-

tutions to address the teacher shortage situation. Already community colleges in a num-

ber of southwestern states in the United States and Florida have gained degree-granting

status and are competing with four-year institutions for students and resources.

A third plank in the Bush administration proposals for teacher education is strong

endorsement and support for alternative preparation or certification programs. In

part because of their support, such programs now constitute a growing presence in

teacher education in many parts of the United States. While education schools in the

United States are perceived as holding a monopoly over preparation, the reality is

that a proliferation of providers now exist and provide increasing numbers of begin-

ning teachers. These alternative programs cater to paraprofessionals, mid-career

switchers, and college graduates who decide after graduation they want to teach. For-

profit providers, local school districts, community colleges and traditional universi-

ties offer programs. Some estimates now put the number of alternatively prepared

teachers as high as twenty-five percent of the beginning teacher pool. Today, in

California less than half of beginning teachers are graduates of traditional teacher

education programs, and in Texas only 62 of the 110 "providers" of beginning teachers

are even higher education based.

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QUALITY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

104

A fourth policy direction is to demand even greater accountability by teacher

education programs. Today, using new value added assessment methodologies, policy

makers are calling for even more ambitious accountability measures. They want to

hold teacher preparation institutions responsible for the effectiveness of their gradu-

ates beyond the point of graduation. They want institutions to follow their graduates

into the initial teaching assignment and to ensure that they succeed. The measure of

success they want to use is K-12 student test scores. Failure of teachers to produce

significant improvements of student learning, policy makers insist, should reflect on

the preparation program. Traditional teacher preparation programs, as a result of this

expectation, are investing huge sums to track their graduates into their initial teaching

positions to capture K-12 student scores so judgments can be made about program

effectiveness. While researchers insist that the "intervening variables" are huge and

the complexities of teaching too great to do this, education programs are struggling

to find ways to do so.

Ironically, policy makers are also calling for greater flexibility in the preparation

of beginning teachers and urging variance, innovation, and distinctiveness between and

among programs even while they promote a common framework and call for a core

curriculum for teacher preparation. Florida's recent regulations for teacher education

promote both "variance" and "commonality" in the same set of rules without any apolo-

gies to teacher educators charged with doing both at the same time.

DEFINING HIGH QUALITY TEACHER EDUCATION

What is described above is the active political involvement of central government in

defining high quality teaching and teacher education. It is the political mandates and

the legislative dictates of central government and the use of federal resources that

results in a definition of high quality. It is national policy setting and consideration of

active and appropriate federal efforts to drive the redefinition and reform of teacher

education. In contrast to these approaches, professionals and academics have employed

other ways. Perhaps it is helpful to cite three examples or approaches taken by profes-

sionals to reach consensus on what constitutes high quality teacher education.

The first represents a form of expert consensus building that relies on experts in

teacher education reaching consensus on high quality indicators and using them to

render judgments about the quality of particular teacher preparation programs. In

John Goodlad's Teachers for Our Nation's Schools experts reached consensus in the

identification of 19-postulates or belief statements about high quality teacher education.

(Goodlad, 1990) An example of a so-called Goodlad postulate is that "the responsible

group of academic and clinical faculty members must seek out and select for a

predetermined number of student places in the program those candidates who reveal

an initial commitment to the moral, ethical, and enculturation responsibilities to be

assumed, and make clear to them that preparing for these responsibilities is central to

the program." Professor Goodlad and a group of policy makers (represented by

later President and then Arkansas Governor William J. Clinton) and professionals

(represented by teacher educator Gary D Fenstermacher) identified these belief

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

statements and then studied some 24 colleges and universities to see if they "met"

those expectations. Lacking "research evidence" for their postulates, Goodlad and

his colleagues "read selectively and quite a lot … studied the histories of education

in other professions … talked with knowledgeable others … probed into the question

of current agreement on existing good teacher education … and exchanged and dis-

cussed various position papers" to arrive at a set of "presuppositions." (Goodlad, 1990)

Another approach, taken by Linda Darling-Hammond, in Studies of Excellence in

Teacher Education, derived a set of quality indicators by examining teacher preparation

programs at a pre-selected list of twelve colleges and universities that exhibited certain

characteristics. (Darling-Hammond, 1996) A team of scholars visited and then wrote

studies of the approaches to teacher education taken at a dozen institutions and

Darling-Hammond then prepared a summary. She asserted that high quality in

teacher preparation was only possible when:

●there was a shared and clear understanding of good teaching,

●the faculty had practice and performance standards for themselves and their program,

●the curriculum focused on child and adolescent development, learning theory,

included theories about cognition and motivation,

●had a focus on a context of practice,

●included extensive clinical practice,

●exhibited common agreements and shared beliefs between university faculty and

school practitioners, and

●made use of multiple instructional strategies to inform candidates for teaching.

Though Goodlad began with postulates and Darling-Hammond concluded with

them, there was a common commitment to using quality determinants to judge

teacher preparation. Expert knowledge was used to set the conditions for high quality

teacher education. At the current time, there is another approach being sought. This

is being described as a research-based approach to defining high quality teacher

education. Two major efforts are underway in the United States to examine research

evidence (but only "scientifically based research findings") to arrive at a set of

evidence-based postulates or determinants regarding teacher education. The first of

these is work of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) and efforts

by a consensus panel of that organization headed by Marilyn Cochran-Smith and

Kenneth Zeichner to arrive at research evidence to support claims about teacher

education. The second is an effort of the National Academy of Education Committee

on Teacher Education. This is consensus panel work with a group of educational

researchers, headed by Linda Darling-Hammond and John Bransford, who are examin-

ing research evidence in nine domains or areas to arrive at consensus about high qual-

ity teacher education. Their research syntheses are expected to be released in Spring

2005 and, hopefully, will shape the dialogue regarding teacher education in the future.

Both the AERA and NAE effort are based on earlier efforts of both the Education

Commission of the States (Allen, 2003) and the Center on Teacher Policy at the

University of Washington Wilson et al . (2001) and are attempting to examine what

research says about teacher education. The efforts of these research-based

approaches should have considerable impact on the field and on policy making. Both

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consensus panels have assembled the best American scholars and educational

researchers on teaching and teacher education but had difficulty arriving at a consensus

about what research tells us regarding the effectiveness of teacher education. Note

that a demand for measures of effectiveness has become a part of the conversation

on teacher education quality with growing attention to the need to show that

program graduates make a positive difference in the learning and well being of their

students.

The third approach taken is a professional consensus model that draws upon the

wisdom of practice and relies on a system of standards and criteria to render judgments

about the quality of particular approaches to teacher preparation. Embraced in the

accreditation standards of NCATE, this approach asserts that "knowledge of the subject

matter" is important, that teacher candidates must be able "to provide multiple

explanations and instructional strategies" (pedagogical content knowledge); and that

the "candidate work with students, families and communities in ways that reflect the

dispositions expected of professional educators" are examples of the expectations set

in these standards.

The professional consensus model has also been used to set licensing requirements

for teacher candidates. Definition of the desired skills, knowledge and dispositions of

beginning teachers with the expectation that teacher education programs will set

compatible standards and expectations is represented here. This variation of the

professional consensus model is represented by the more than a decade of work

undertaken by the Interstate New Teacher Assistance and Support Consortium

(INTASC), a coalition of professional groups that have set forth a set of standards for

the licensure of beginning teachers. Examples of such INTASC standards are that

"the teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates

instructional opportunities that adapted to diverse learners" or "the teacher under-

stands how children learn and develop and provides learning experiences that

support their intellectual, social and personal development." (The INTASC approach

to defining high quality is derived from the far better known work of the National

Board for Professional Teaching Standards. NBPTS articulated a set of standards for

excellent teaching by practicing professionals in the 1980s and this work continues to

impact the field of teaching and teacher education.).

POLITICAL ACTION AND THE DETERMINATION

OF HIGH QUALITY

Where this leads is recognition that someone ultimately will decide what is quality in

teacher education. Whether it will be federal policy makers or local professionals

will largely depend upon the alliances that can be built between these two sectors.

Who decides and what they decide are matters for professionals to consider.

Academics and professionals must accept the reality that ultimately who decides is a

political matter because ultimately teacher education is a political matter with deci-

sions about the definitions to be used to define quality in teacher education shaped

by the needs and expectations of the political state.

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

Education is highly political, although there is a tradition in most countries to

assert that education (including teacher education) is or ought to be apolitical. In

reality, however, various private groups in most countries struggle to secure the

authoritative support of government for their values concerning schools and schooling

at all levels of government (Wirt and Kirst, 1997). While many appeal for profes-

sionals to make expert decisions regarding schooling and teacher education, it is the

political elites that shape the discourse about education and, appropriately, describe

purposes and goals for education that meet the needs of the political state. While

many assert an individual or private purpose for formal education, the reality is that

government schools must meet the purposes of the state. Despite the protests of many

and the beliefs of others, in all countries schooling is used as an instrument of

government, propagandizing on behalf of that government. In both the developing

and developed world there is the increasing identification of school policies and

practices with public interests. In the United States, in particular, we are witnessing

the politicalization of education policy making despite Constitutional limitations and

Congressional prohibitions.

Teacher education is in large measure a political process that has to be aligned with

the political aspirations of the political state. It is for that reason that teacher education

is the subject of such an intense focus and has assumed such great importance in the

world as almost all nation-states endeavor to transform their schools and universities.

Everywhere there is the quest for greater quality in education – and, therefore,

teacher education is the focal point for attention and concern.

TEACHER EDUCATION AS A NATIONAL PRIORITY

Following the debates at century-end in the United States regarding the responsibility

of various levels of government for social welfare, health and schooling, policymaking

has shifted nationally with massive shifts in social responsibility. This has resulted in

a greater federal presence and role in education policy making in the United States.

Resource scarcities have made the funding of many so-called entitlements intensely

political but the reality is that education has shifted so that it is state supported but

federally directed. The next level of debate has to do with whether government

should provide such services or merely guarantee their provision that ensures matters

of public education will stay part of the national discourse.

In some sense, teacher education was peripheral to many of these earlier policy

debates and only belatedly became the center of attention. Until recently, teacher

education was essentially local in scope and design – it attracted students from local

communities, gave them an education that focused on local needs, and helped to

locate graduates in local communities where they taught local children and youth. As

a local concern, teacher education largely escaped the critical eye of politicians and

the public, though to be sure teacher education has always had its critics who have

brought to it national attention.

Those seeking professional status for teachers and those promoting standards

based reforms for schools changed the local character of teacher education. They

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gave it a national orientation in the U.S. with a host of federal or national legislative

enactments reinforcing a national teacher certification initiative, promoting a

national licensing scheme for beginning teachers, and using professional accreditation

to achieve a national system of teacher education – often in violation of laws enacted

by those same politicians to prevent such a nationalization of policy making. As a

result, debates regarding teacher education have become national in scope and shifted

the attention from the local to the national. In the United States, teacher education

has evolved from being a matter of local concern to a matter of much national impor-

tance. It has evolved in this way without the explicit endorsement of state officials

(who traditionally have licensed teachers and approved programs) or the understanding

of teacher educators. Whether national teacher licensing, with national teacher tests,

will soon lead to a national curriculum for teacher education is a matter of much

debate. What is real is that this type of policy question is not widely understood even

by those sponsoring the creation of these new national entities.

CLAIMING VOICE: RELYING ON EXPERT KNOWLEDGE

The need for teacher educators to engage in the local-national debate about high

quality teaching is real. Absent their voice, the debates will be settled at the federal

level and policies will be handed to states and localities to implement. Teacher

educators will increasingly be put in a "bureaucratic mode" of implementing a

nationally approved curriculum and set of policies and procedures reinforced at the

state level. They will be "implementers" or "technicians" and further marginalize

themselves from both the national dialogue and the academic discourse. Teacher

educators have to assert an activist position in which student learning is the

message – it is their commitment to the learning of all students that will enable

them to participate in the national dialogue. The efforts of some to appeal for old-

style teacher professionalism will not suffice. For at least a generation, teacher

educators have embraced a model of professionalism and appealed to American

medicine as the appropriate path to follow to gain political voice. The challenge of

old-style teacher unionism and the stridency of collective bargaining have put off

the achievement of professional status for teaching. Nevertheless, some assert that

the way for teacher educators to combat the efforts of national policy makers and

others in the current political debates is to reassert the importance of professional-

ism. There is an appeal for "restorationism" – of restoring teacher education to its

rightful place in the political discourse surrounding schools by embracing fully the

teaching profession and becoming an integral part of the efforts to build a national

profession. We introduce this notion because of its common acceptance and the

belief of many that restorationism can lead to enhanced status and reward. We want

to argue that old style professionalism will not regain status and recognition for

teacher education. Instead, we believe that teacher education can only gain political

voice by showing that it makes a positive difference in the lives and learning of all

children and youth.

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

POLICY REACH AND IMPACT

In summary, in virtually every country there are commissions and study groups

exploring ways to better prepare teachers. In the U.S. this is particularly true with a

wide range of national criticisms offered regarding teacher education. Criticisms

range from the "feel-goodism" of the methodology to the advocacy of child-centered

pedagogies. More direct challenges come in the condemnation of programs for their

lack of subject-matter dependence to the perceived low quality of candidates admit-

ted. There is criticism of preparation programs for their failure to connect preparation

to practice, to address student and subject matter standards, to give sufficient attention

to modern technologies, to teach scientifically based approaches to reading and math-

ematics, and failure to emphasize classroom management and assertive discipline

practices. These criticisms are compounded by the perception that traditional programs

have failed to produce sufficient numbers of beginning teachers to overcome a persist-

ent demand for more highly qualified teachers for hard to staff schools (although the

persistence of low teacher salaries seems to be a factor that is dismissed or refocused to

emphasize performance rather than practice).

In the U.S., policy makers seek beginning teachers who are brighter and smarter

than the current workforce, possess greater verbal ability (Florida's new BEST guide-

lines for teacher education describes this expectation for all candidates for teaching

to be able "to write and speak in a logical and understandable style with appropriate

grammar"), know their subject well (as determined by an academic degree for middle

and secondary school teachers and high test scores on "rigorous" tests of subject

matter knowledge), and integrate new technologies into their teaching of a far more

diverse student population than we have ever seen.

Policy makers, who today are riveted on the promise of high quality teaching, are

often dismissive of traditional teacher education programs they believe are ineffec-

tual. The fact that teacher education is often over-regulated and under-resourced is

ignored. In the United States, policy makers often set admission criteria into

programs and prescribe outcomes for graduates. They dictate the content to be

learned, prescribe the number of courses to be taken, and determine the licensure

examinations to be used before candidates can be licensed. They insist that prepara-

tion programs prepare beginning teachers who can ensure school safety, promote

professional ethics, understand school law, use data and various forms of assessment,

engage parents, understand K-12 state standards, know different ways of teaching to

enable all students to meet the proficiency expectations of the state, appreciate lan-

guage diversity and how to meet the needs of students with limited English profi-

ciency, as well as to know ways of meeting the learning needs of special needs

students – who may possess the full range of learning, emotional and physical chal-

lenges. They want all of this done without increasing teacher candidate "seat time" or

the costs of the preparation program. They contend that candidate performance must

be measured in multiple ways but rely on single measures – scores of candidates on

standardized tests – to assign status and make awards.

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Policy makers mandate the use of institutional report cards and set targets (80%

pass rates) that institutions must meet with sanctions and other consequences for

programs that fail to do so. They insist that these measures be applied to all tradi-

tional program candidates with the expectation that programs ensure that different

ethnic and racial groups, and students from different language and social-economic

backgrounds have comparable pass rates on these examinations. Policy makers then

criticize programs for their failure to attract sufficient numbers of highly qualified

candidates into these highly regulated programs, instead choosing to invest substantial

sums in alternative models of preparation to attract sufficient numbers of beginning

teachers. Many times these policy makers exempt alternative programs and their

candidates from the regulations they impose on traditional programs. As teacher

education is moving to become national and federally controlled, and away from state

controls, it has attracted the attention of federal lawmakers. As a result, it is increasingly

a subject of political comment and attention, with both Republican and Democrat

legislators identifying with particular causes in teacher education and seeking to

impose their will.

THE DEPOLITICALIZATION OF THE DEBATES

The only way we are going to depoliticize teacher education and to reclaim a rightful

place for teacher education professionals and academics in the debates regarding

teacher education is to refocus and re-center teacher education on local needs and

local concerns and away from national or even international efforts. In the United

States, we have succumbed to the lure of national recognition and professional status,

driven by a craven disregard of what we, teacher educators and teacher preparation

institutions do best – focus on local needs and local concerns. The advocacy for

national implementations of accreditation standards, certification processes and assess-

ment schemes has distracted us from what should be our primary consideration – the

promotion of student learning by all students in local schools. The consequences

have been horrendous as more attacks are leveled at teacher education and more

efforts are made to circumvent or diminish teacher preparation at our nation's colleges

and universities. Our efforts at building a national system of teacher education have

brought us federal intrusion and unreasonable demands, particularly in an era of

resource scarcities.

Marilyn Cochran-Smith has promoted the concept of local knowledge as the

appropriate focus for research scholars in teacher education (Cochran-Smith, 2003).

She advocates the study of local problems and the offering of solutions to local needs

as the appropriate focus of faculty and students in teacher education. The premise for

her advocacy is that local engagement is where the greatest impact can be made.

Particularizing concerns about student learning to the children enrolled in particular

classrooms or schools or in certain neighborhoods or communities gives teacher edu-

cation access to the local and the necessary. While there are a few teacher education

programs that are national in scope (because of the students they attract and the reach

of their graduates), most of teacher education is still done in comprehensive and

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

small liberal arts colleges and universities. Rather than apologizing for the localism

of such approaches, the appeal here is that teacher educators must exploit the local

possibilities and concentrate their efforts on preparing teachers for their communities

and schools.

Such an approach would have a salutary effect on public recognition and support

for the teacher education program or the education school. Local principals and local

teachers as well as local community leaders and others could see the benefits of local

investment in ways that are lost when the focus or the attention drifts to other initia-

tives beyond the local or the situated. The challenge, of course, is that too often the

local goes unnoticed in communities of practice or scholarship that are regional or

national. Academics and professionals have to ensure that this does not occur; that

local examples of good practice or good research are highlighted in ways that

heighten national awareness. Studying local problems and focusing on preparing

teachers and principals to meet the very particular needs of local schools is where

there is great need. Rather than generic teacher education (preparing teacher candidates

for multiple roles in multiple settings), this is an argument for the specific (preparing

teacher candidates for specific schools in which the learning needs of children and

youth are well documented and described). The criticisms of teacher education and

education schools that are highlighted above are national in focus; the solution to

those challenges is local and particular. A pedagogy that focuses on local needs is

what is needed. It is local learning where teacher educators can have their greatest

impact. Doing so would accomplish many things, but if it were done with the focus

on student learning then it would:

●lower the political volatility surrounding the matter of teacher education;

●overcome the gap in credibility that has arisen as teacher educators have focused

on schools everywhere rather than in the communities surrounding the teacher

preparation institution; and

●enable teacher educators to make use of local knowledge in their preparation and to

connect in meaningful ways with local schools, parents and community's schools.

Going local is where the greatest impact can be made. Following a decade of

centralism and claims for a national agenda to gain recognition and reward, there is a

groundswell for the local and the particular. The reassertion of the role of parents and

local communities in determining the curriculum and procedures for the education of

their children has to be paralleled by teacher educators joining with policy makers at

the local level to help all students learn. While it is clear is that while adherents of

NCLBA will continue to assert a federal role in standards setting and accountability,

the prevailing trend is to turn back to local schools and provide them greater voice

and more decision making authority about every aspect of teaching and learning.

Education schools and other academics have the opportunity to play a vital role in

helping local schools think through the issues that confront the schools and to partic-

ipate in addressing these needs. Credibility and recognition will be gained if education

schools and teacher educators are in the forefront of such efforts.

Teacher education still has to focus on the moral and ethical, on the inclusion of

all children and their learning in schools. Teacher educators must wrestle with the

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challenge of enculturating the young into the political democracy and on helping

students find fulfillment and academic success. Teacher education must focus on

providing students access to the explosion of knowledge in all fields and facility in

exploiting the technologies to learn and participate and engage. The primary focus,

however, has to be on the problems of local schools where the greatest needs are

evident and where the greatest benefit can come to the future of teacher education.

REFERENCES

Allen, Michael (2003) Eight Questions on Teacher Preparation: What Does Research Say? Denver:

Education Commission of the States.

Bright, K. and Harmeyer, S. (2002) Higher Education: Activities Underway to Improve Teacher Training,

but Reporting on These Activities Could Be Enhanced. Washington, DC: United States General

Accounting Office.

Cochran-Smith, M. (2003) Assessing Assessment in Teacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education,

Vol. 54 (May-June), 3, pp. 187–191.

Goodlad, J. I. (1990) Teachers for Our Nation's Schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Hargreaves, Andy. (2003) Teaching in the Knowledge Society: Education in the Age of Insecurity. New

York: Teachers College Press, p 230.

Paige, R. (2002) Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers Challenge: The Secretary's Annual Report on

Teacher Quality. Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary

Education, Office of Policy Planning and Innovation.

Plecki, M. L. (2000) Economic Perspectives on Investments in Teacher Quality: Lessons Learned From

Research on Productivity and Human Development, Education Policy Analysis Archives, vol. 8,

33, p. 11.

Sachs, Judyth. (2003) The Activist Teaching Profession. Buckingham: Open University Press, p. 171

Sanders, William L. (1998) Value-added Assessment. The School Administrator, Vol. 55 (November), 11,

pp. 24–32.

U.S. House of Representatives. (2001) No Child Left Behind Act . Conference Report To Accompany H.R. 1,

Washington, DC: Author.

Whitehurst, Grover. (2003) Scientifically Based Research on Teacher Quality: Research on Teacher

Preparation and Professional Development, Appendix A, in Meeting the Highly Qualified Teachers

Challenge: The Secretary's Second Annual Report on Teacher Quality. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of Education, pp. 39–54.

Wilson, S., Floden, R. and Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001) Teacher Preparation Research: Current Knowledge,

Gaps, and Recommendations. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Center for Teaching Policy.

Wirt, Frederick M. and Kirst, Michael W. (1997) The Political Dynamics of American Education.

Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing.

DAVID G. IMIG AND SCOTT R. IMIG

How far, in a participatory democracy, should we allow the elected representatives of

the people and their agencies to prevail over the best judgements of professionals?

Should the State employ its doctors, nurses, dentists, social workers, teachers, uni-

versity lecturers, etc (all paid from the public purse) as a professional resource left

largely to its own devices; or – since it pays the piper – should the State call the tune,

demanding from its employees service of a specified and regulated kind which meets

centrally-imposed standards and conditions? Should it feel able to disregard the

advice of those employees when drawing up specifications for the task in hand? Does

a Government own the professionals it pays for (as it does the Civil Service), or does

it delegate to them the making of their own decisions?

In the important business of the education and training of new teachers in England,

I believe we have come to the end of a period of strife in which the contested terri-

tory was based precisely on this question. Before the war began, professional teacher

educators had been left largely alone to do their work as they pleased – and many

people contended that the results were so poor that the government had to intervene.

At the height of the battle, government forces had set up such a consequential battery

of regulation and inspection that professionals working in Higher Education had little

room left to practise in their preferred way. Some were even fearful for their liveli-

hoods, such was the strength of view among many with political influence that they

were at best superfluous and at worst actually inimical to the public good. The bat-

tlefield is quieter now than it was in the clamour of earlier violence. The generals on

both sides can claim a degree of victory to their troops, and they know in their hearts

that they must parley, now, to avoid recurrence of the conflict.

CASUS BELLI

In 1982, the people who inspect English schools (Her Majesty's Inspectorate – more

recently re-designated as the Office for Standards in Education, OfSTED) published

their findings concerning the quality of new entrants to the teaching profession in a

Report called The New Teacher in School (HMI, 1982). It concluded that a quarter of

those entering the classroom after training were inappropriately prepared for their

professional responsibilities. In asking students and new teachers what they thought

of their training programmes, the Inspectors reported a strong and widespread

disdain for 'educational theory': the four disciplines of philosophy, psychology,

history and sociology of education. What, asked the students, had these dry and dusty

book-bound subjects to tell us about the real world of schools and classrooms, of

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MIKE NEWBY

8. STANDARDS AND PROFESSIONALISM:

PEACE TALKS?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 113–126.

114

teachers and learners? The students much preferred actually being in the classroom

with the kids, learning to practise out there in the territory. What they got back on the

campus was, in their view, boring and irrelevant.

The impact on Government was long-lasting. The thinking (it was the early 1980s)

went a little like this: 'We had better do something – and fast! The world is threaten-

ing to fall apart. Oil prices are rising out of control. We are running embarrassingly

high levels of inflation. We are starting to see, on our inner-city streets and in our

high-rise housing estates, frightening levels of youthful unrest. Such sights on our

TV screens make excruciating viewing for any governing party.

Why are they doing this, these dismal examples of the Nation's youth? Because of

the mediocre quality of their education, a state-funded failure of an education in

which a third of pupils leave school with no discernible qualifications, moving

straight from the classroom onto the unemployment register, endangering an already

fragile economy and threatening social unrest.

And why this bleak situation? Because their teachers are so hopeless. Hippies

raised in the decadent '60's, you only have to look at the way they dress – so shabby,

so casual! – to see the reason. How can we entrust the Nation's youth to people like

these?

And why are our teachers like this? To answer that, look at the way they are trained.

Their heads are filled with theories when everyone knows that what's needed to

become a good teacher is practice. What's more, these theories – and the very act

itself of theorising – often lead these newcomers to teaching to be critical of

Government education policies. Each new generation of teachers comes into our

schools with foolish, bogus notions in their minds, like free expression, creativity,

child-centredness! The source of our present predicament lies amid the dreaming

spires and hushed quadrangles of academe! It lurks in the Senior Common Rooms of

our universities and polytechnics. It festers in our teacher training colleges!' (At the

time, courses of teacher education and training operated in all three types of Higher

Education institution. In 1992, polytechnics were permitted to take on the title

'university' and, at least in theory, the old distinctions between the two vanished.

Teacher training colleges effectively ceased to exist, either being taken over by local

universities or polytechnics, or diversifying to become what, by 2004, were known as

'university-sector colleges'.)

This, of course, is a caricature, but it is not so far from the mark. One parliamen-

tarian, Lord Pearson of Rannoch, during a House of Lords debate in 1996 (Hansard,

1996), colourfully but seriously described university-based teacher education and

training as being controlled by 'a large, powerful, vicious and insular education

establishment … ideologues' inherent in the activities of whom was 'the promotion

of socialism'. He described the preparation of new teachers as 'the soil in which

the roots of our primary, secondary and indeed university systems feed' but

lamented that 'the cancer now runs so deep'that to turn around 'the long march of the

institutions … will be a long and arduous process.'

Even after the 1997 election, in which Tony Blair's Labour government displaced the

long-standing Tory administrations of Margaret Thatcher and John Major (1979–1997),

MIKE NEWBY

the fears expressed about a subversive, leftist education establishment were still

being voiced. Influential columnist Melanie Phillips felt able to write (New

Statesman, 2002) of 'desperate parents and teachers intimidated by the doctrinaire

education orthodoxy'. Those working in teacher education found it perplexing to

read of their labour in terms of 'intimidation' and 'cancer' and of their colleagues –

even of they themselves – as being 'vicious and insular'.

Beating beneath this lurid exterior was an unrelenting ideological pulse. Those on

the right in our politics had seen certain elements in British society as lying at the

heart of its perceived decline. One was the power of the trade unions, evident

throughout the 1970s in a seemingly endless round of industrial action. Another was

the influence of local government which, throughout the years of Conservative rule,

tended politically to the opposition parties. To these could be added the 'educational

establishment', malevolently scheming the overthrow of the State by influencing

their student teachers' minds, and so perpetuating a leftist, radical, progressive

agenda which was then carried down into the schools. These were among the people

who must be stopped!

Most powerful of the unions were the coal miners – 'the enemy within' as

Mrs Thatcher once famously termed them (Thatcher, 1984). After a rancorous and

sometimes violent strike in 1984–85, they were defeated by the authorities, their

leaders humbled and the power of trade unionism diminished. As for local govern-

ment, the largest spending line in the budget of any Local Authority was education

and during these years legislation was passed which sought to encourage parents to

vote their childrens' schools out of Local Authority control. As for the teacher edu-

cators, they were to become regulated by a strict regime in which funding and the

allocation of student numbers were subject to the results of inspection by OfSTED,

measured against centrally-imposed 'standards'.

STANDARDS IN SCHOOLS

Although, of course, there were good new teachers coming out well-trained from

good courses in the teacher training colleges, polytechnics and universities, others

were merely passing through, perhaps taking the nine-month Postgraduate

Certificate in Education (PGCE) in order to hold a qualification as insurance in case

they failed to get a better job, perhaps even taking the PGCE because they needed

more time as students to think of what to do with the rest of their lives. As for those

wishing to teach younger children in primary school, the largest route was the

Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree, and entry standards for students to the BEd,

measured in terms of 'A' level results, compared badly with those entering other

degree programmes, giving ammunition to those who contended that the quality of

teacher education in Higher Education was weak and that the abilities of those entering

the profession were limited.

For our state schools were not producing good results. That a third of young people

could not really claim to know much, understand much or do much by the time they

left school was an indictment of the whole education system. The government needed

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to act. The stand against teacher education was not, therefore, simply the manifestation

of a passing irritation. Neither, though it had those elements, could it only be charac-

terised as a way of finding convenient ideological scapegoats among seemingly

left-leaning professionals in the public service. While it would at the same time

curtail the apparent influence of the intellectual left over the minds of the teachers

coming into our schools, Government policy was for a reform programme for teacher

education which would raise teaching quality. In more ways than one, then, it would

hold back the decline in standards: standards in teacher effectiveness and so stan-

dards in pupil performance. The government of the day found a powerfully attractive

political message in this determination to lift sagging standards, to reverse decline, to

go back to basics, to feel good again about ourselves as a nation. In those days, many

tended not to look forward but to seek the restoration of a cleaner, simpler, past, one

bleached of the disappointing stains of modernity.

THE COUNCIL FOR THE ACCREDITATION OF

TEACHER EDUCATION (CATE)

And so, in 1984, a mechanism of sorts was established, called the Council for the

Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE), to help put things right. CATE pub-

lished criteria . Courses must address these or, eventually, be closed down. It was the

first taste people in Higher Education had of centralised control over their curriculum

and their syllabus design. Even their staffing: for one of these criteria was that all

Higher Education lecturers responsible for training students for classroom practice

must themselves have recent and relevant teaching experience at the age-phase for

which their students were preparing. Lecturers were sent off to work in schools.

'Done your R&R yet?' academics would ask each other in campus corridors and sen-

ior common rooms. Education Departments appointing applicants to posts would

often prefer those with successful school-teaching experience to academics with

burgeoning research records. In this way, the staffing profiles of Education

Departments, always tending to the practitioner-base rather than the academic,

moved ever further outside the mainstream of Higher Education.

Was there just a touch in this of Chairman Mao's Cultural Revolution, with intel-

lectuals being sent to work with the peasants on collective farms for their re-education?

Certainly, the thinking behind 'recent and relevant' seemed to be that 'practice' – the

day-to-day contact in the classroom – was preferable to 'theory' in the experience of

beginning-teachers, and that therefore practitioners – school teachers – were to be

preferred, in supervising such experience, over theoreticians, if such their counter-

parts in the colleges and universities could be called. The values then informing our

system of teacher education and training privileged practice over theory, action over

thought. There was still a long way to go to agree together how the balance between

these could be struck, how theory could inform practice and practice enrich and mod-

ify theory. That those who prepared new teachers should have 'recent and relevant'

experience suitable to the task was not really the issue: of course they should. But we

were still some way from understanding that an academic's recent and relevant

experience of his or her research area (given of course that it illuminated the field in

MIKE NEWBY

question) was no less important and valuable to the student-teacher than was the

day-to-day experience of the classroom practitioner. Or that both were essential.

Preference for practice gained its most powerful advocate when, in 1992, the

Secretary of State, announced his intention that four-fifths of secondary teacher

training would henceforth take place in the school classroom, schools to be 'in the

lead' in the process. Control was to be ceded from Higher Education and handed to

the schools. He had earlier said:

I meet too many young people who don't go into teaching because they are put off

by the length of the [training] course. Or they go on a course and give up because they

are put off by the idea of learning too much theory and not enough practice. I want to

see students actually getting into a classroom for much more of the time while they

train. I want them to learn how to control a noisy class of 30 kids by actually having

to do it with the help of an experienced teacher and using their training courses to sort

out the problems. (Clarke, 1991)

The implication was that to become a teacher was a comparatively simple thing to

do (we're dangerously close to: any fool can teach!) and that high-flown theories

were therefore redundant.

THE TEACHER TRAINING AGENCY (TTA)

In 1994, CATE (reputedly because it was too soft on the teacher trainers) was swept

away and in its place the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) was established, a funding

agency working directly to government. It contracted with what came to be known

collectively as 'providers' for courses of teacher training. (The very word 'training'

grated on the nerves of professionals, who preferred 'education'. Their remonstra-

tions went unsatisfied, however: 'training' remained inscribed in the title, the prepa-

ration of teachers proclaimed unequivocally as a training process rather than an

educative one.)

These providers, of course, were the ones already doing the work of training teach-

ers: the colleges, polytechnics and universities, together with their school partners.

However, the TTA stressed that they were in an open market-place: if anyone else

came along who met their design brief, then they too could train teachers. Some did:

some schools, which either singly or in consortia decided they could make a better job

than could the universities, formed what came to be called SCITTs (School-Centred

Initial Teacher Training). Government welcomed them – even courted them. This was

more like it: an alternative to what they saw as the hegemony of Higher Education!

And so one piece was installed of a centrally-controlled system determining the

preparation of new teachers. The TTA worked to government, advising but also doing

the politicians' will. Those working in Higher Education were largely powerless to resist.

THE OFFICE FOR STANDARDS IN EDUCATION (OF STED)

The reason was the other piece, which was OfSTED. The TTA contracted with

OfSTED to be its quality assurance arm. The Agency funded its providers on the

basis of their quality, using OfSTED's judgements in two ways: first, as to whether a

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particular Higher Education course complied with the training standards set out by

the Secretary of State (failure to comply leading to loss of 'accredited provider'status);

second, as to how well or badly they did their work (poor quality leading to cuts in

student numbers and so funding; good quality leading to possible growth).

Where a provider was not hitting the highest standards, the mechanism meant they

lost money, thereby making it harder for them to improve those standards, this in turn

making it more likely that, next time they were inspected, they'd be still worse, which

would give the TTA the cue to withdraw accreditation entirely. Was this because, in

the view of the Agency, the country was 'over-provided'with HE-based teacher training

centres which it intended to thin out? Certainly, many suspected so, warning of the

possible regional consequences for training supply were the Agency's tactics to be

used indiscriminately.

The TTA and OfSTED thus worked together in an axis of control, with this brutally

simple way of dealing with the delinquents in the system. As the Chief Executive of

the TTA said (Millett, 1997): 'It is crucial not to cut the link between quality and

funding. This has been a powerful and effective lever in raising standards, allowing

us to reward high-quality providers and show the others that they need to improve.

Once you've got them by the finances, their hearts and minds will follow.'Wrong on

the question of hearts as on the question of minds, nonetheless she was right that

there was little the professionals could do about it all. The Chief Inspector of Schools

(the Chief Executive of OfSTED) was at the time himself openly, even sneeringly,

disdainful of HE-based teacher training. Life for those working in the Education

Departments had become most uncomfortable. Some suspected that, as well as being

enjoined to improve, they were being punished for a crime they were not able to

relate to their own past behaviour.

Inspections happened regularly and often, sometimes every year, sometimes more.

Different teams of inspectors might operate in the same institution at the same time,

one inspecting one course while their colleagues were inspecting another. The regime

threatened to sink the whole ship even if only one of its parts sprang a leak, on the

grounds that for a department to have within it a poor-quality course suggested faulty

quality control and, that being so, the whole department should come under stern

scrutiny to see whether it should be allowed to continue its work in all its courses.

TTA's Chief Executive reiterated the point in an interview: 'One "unsatisfactory"

inspection grading is enough to trigger a review by the TTA of the college's accredi-

tation and funding' (TES, 1996). For some lecturing staff, this regime was damaging

to health: an inspector visiting your class next day (a reasonable professional expec-

tation) might, if things went wrong, trigger a sequence of events resulting in the loss

of funding for your department. At its worst, your own livelihood – even that of your

colleagues – might be at stake.

Because the TTA ran to a different set of procedural mechanisms, University pro-

tocols (for student number returns, funding streams, etc) had to be adapted. This

higher bureaucratic cost, together with the high risks to which teacher education had

by now become associated, led many Vice-Chancellors to question whether it

remained worthwhile to sustain that part of their corporate businesses. Traditionally

MIKE NEWBY

suspicious of the academic standing of teacher training, and increasingly uncomfort-

able with the lack of research profiles among staff who (as a result of the 'recent and

relevant' ruling) had been recruited largely on the basis of their classroom experi-

ence, some university authorities became hostile to their education departments,

allowing them to survive – or so it seemed – only on sufferance.

CHANGING FORTUNES

This appalling situation went on getting worse until, in 1997, Mr Blair won a land-

slide victory against a moribund Conservative party and things began to change. In

2003, we read in the Chief Inspector of School's Annual Report (HMSO, 2003) that

teacher education courses are: 'good or very good in 80% of the courses … almost

none of the courses were providing poor training. … School-centred … partnerships

have shared in the general trend towards improvement [but] continue to perform less

well overall than the HE-based partnerships.'The TTA welcomed its publication in a

press release headed: 'Newly-qualified teachers the best trained ever,' going on to

say, '… Modern training is practical and highly relevant to the classroom. We treat

new teachers as professionals from day one.'What could possibly have happened?

I have implied it was a change of government, and that is certainly a most impor-

tant circumstance from which anyone involved in teacher education in England can

draw the inescapable conclusion that the prevailing political agenda will impact on

the way a society decides how to prepare its teachers. Mr Blair's election slogan had

been 'Education! Education! Education!' and the new government's energies were

focussed on raising school standards, everyone involved in education being recruited

to this task. Teacher educators in Higher Education found themselves included by

government as necessary partners in preparing new teachers, their representatives

meeting government at ministerial level – astonishingly, for the first time. Forget ide-

ological crusades against the slipshod left: now there was a real job to do and all

hands would be needed. During those early years of the new administration, it

became possible for policy-makers, inspectors, funders and professionals to establish

together some kind of (admittedly cautious) alliance which engendered new ways of

working and a gradually-evolving discourse of collaboration. Even of partnership.

STANDARDS AND PROFESSIONALISM

The clash could be characterised in simple terms as that between standards and pro-

fessionalism, and it was to bridge this apparent gulf that this discourse began. There

is a paradox here: surely, standards and professionalism belong intimately together as

part of the same notion, whereas in England the struggle has tended to force them

apart and place them in opposition. To characterise what I believe has been meant in

their opposition, rather than their fusion, we can reconstruct government's position as

follows:

'We haven't been convinced that our schools reach standards as high as we would

like. The results in terms of reading ages, numeracy scores, truancy rates, above all

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school-leaving qualifications, are often poor, the schools are drab, the teachers

dispirited, the teaching profession of low status. Though the present generation of

teachers are probably beyond redemption, they're getting older and will retire before

much longer – it's the newcomers we want to focus on. Better teacher training will

gradually help to reverse this situation, putting a fresh generation of teachers into our

schools, so we must raise standards there as well. Higher standards in teacher train-

ing means higher standards in teacher performance which means higher standards of

pupil performance. The calibre of new entrants to the profession must improve, so we

have imposed a regime based around standards and inspections, with funding and

institutional survival as the lever to success.

We've also broken Higher Education's monopoly over the training of teachers by

opening it up to anyone who can meet our standards (well – you never know!). This

regime rests on the notion that, to raise the level of professionalism – indeed, to estab-

lish teaching as a profession at all, rather than little more than a unionised graduate

trade – we need to reinforce and strengthen the standards against which all those

entering the profession must prove their competence. Other professions set them-

selves threshold standards and so for teaching – except that we don't trust teachers to

do it for themselves and so will do it for them. At present, the standards are enshrined

in undergraduate or postgraduate qualifications for teaching. That's too risky for us,

because universities are free to control their own awards, and look what's been hap-

pening! So – from now on we'll tell them what has to go into those awards. We'll

introduce a National Curriculum for Initial Teacher Training (NCITT- introduced in

1997) enshrining these standards for all new teachers. In effect, we'll contract with

the providers for courses which teach this National Curriculum. We'll inspect

progress towards incorporating the standards in all courses of teacher training,

reporting back on the success with which providers are doing so, and in this way we

will gain the plaudits of the electorate for doing what we said we'd do, which is to

raise standards in our schools.

The gains for the educators will be in heightened public respect as their levels of

professionalism rise. This in turn will help recruitment for, in order to attract and

retain excellent people, the preparation process has to be rigorous and difficult to

accomplish. You won't make teaching a respected profession if anyone can get in, as

more or less happens now. We have to set high thresholds, as the NCITT proves. The

days will have passed when people can say: Any fool can teach! because teachers will

be able to respond: Not until they've demonstrated their competence against a range

of rigorous standards, they can't! In such a situation, all sides are eventual winners.'

Now to the position of those universities: 'Your talk of standards is not synony-

mous with our talk of professionalism because it only takes us so far into what a

teacher must do and be. If you press the 'standards' agenda too insistently, you will

lose, not gain, in professional capacity. So your position is a necessary but not suffi-

cient condition for excellence in the teaching profession. What you mean by 'profes-

sional standards' is 'professional standards of technical competence'. Indeed, you

have even used the awkward word 'competencies' to detail the things which each new

teacher must prove him- or herself competent in doing. You use 'professional'in the

MIKE NEWBY

adjectival sense to mean 'at a higher level than merely amateur'. And this is not really

contentious between us, for – self-evidently – technical competence is important.

(You cannot seriously believe we in Higher Education, together with our school part-

ners, are intent upon providing our schools with incompetent teachers.)

However, we hold that technical competence is not nearly enough. Any good teacher

acknowledges the gulf between the merely competent and the richly capable and

versatile professional. The problem is that, if you only concentrate on these standards of

competence, you are in danger of squeezing out those other elements of preparation

which, in our view, all good teachers need in their background as they grow towards

achieving full professionalism. We need to find a balance. You need to be a little less than

adamant that every atomised teaching skill is present in the training programmes so that,

when they come, OfSTED inspectors can tick them off as having been 'done'. (Until

they came to be revised, we counted over 860 competencies in the standards students

needed to achieve to become primary school teachers.) Furthermore, while

acknowledging y our agenda for technical ability, we need space to allow our own for

teacher professionalism to develop. If we can find that balance, we'll have done well.'

ELEMENTS OF PROFESSIONALISM

Some have suggested that we could raise the quality of teachers' performance by raising

the entry standards to a course of teacher education and training. There is no

invariant correlation, however, between entry and exit levels, measured in terms of

examination passes and grades. In England, good new teachers emerge from our

training system who entered it with few, or unorthodox, qualifications. Were the gate-

way to entry thus to be narrowed, teacher supply would first need to be assured. This

has been – and continues to be – a vitally important factor in the situation described

above, governments being more likely to consider a range of alternative solutions

when supply is threatened than when there is a glut of potential teachers.

However, we should energetically consider raising standards of qualification once

within the profession. The English system has been fixated on the initial stages of

training teachers, heedless of the advice given in the 1970s in the James Report

(HMSO, 1972), which proposed a continuity between initial training, induction and

professional development thereafter. Gaining ground in England now is the belief

that, just as we moved in the 1970s from a career grade entry standard of Certificate

to that of Bachelors, the natural level of career qualification for teachers in the

twenty-first century should be Masters. The way is open for a system in which all

graduate teachers, so many years into the profession, should be required to obtain a

professionally-focused Masters degree, this triggering higher salaries and greater

responsibilities. Other professions do this normally, career advancement up a salary

scale and status ladder being predicated not only on experience but on successive

qualification, but UK teachers need never gain higher qualifications once they enter

the profession. It is not easy to defend this situation.

Raising the standard of qualification for teachers would do many good things. Not

least, it would reinforce the idea that initial training is only a staging-post on the way

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towards a career-long journey of professional learning, where at present it is too much

conceived as an end in itself. If teachers are to act as examples for their pupils, here's

a way of demonstrating it in systematic practice, letting pupils witness their teachers

studying for higher-level qualifications, showing them that it's a normal part of life.

Requiring Masters would also stress the important link between each teacher and

education at an advanced level, first in initial and then in subsequent study for

higher-level qualification, something else which would help to reinforce teaching as

a profession in the eyes of the public, such qualifications having universal currency

and so strengthening professional credibility. Furthermore, close identification with

Higher Education will reinforce the notion that teaching is a knowledge-based,

research-driven profession. Universities exist to work with knowledge: discovering

new knowledge through their research; validating knowledge through their academic

disciplines; and disseminating knowledge through teaching and publication, at all

levels from first-year undergraduate to post-doctoral and beyond. To dislocate the

teaching profession from such a context (as previous governments in England have at

the very least seriously considered doing) is to cut away a part of its brain.

Conversely, to proclaim the unbreakable connection between the teaching profession

and the universities is to enrich it, to heighten its impact on the lives of children and

young people and on the public at large.

In England, though we talk of the 'teaching profession', there are many outside it

who still do not really believe it is a profession at all. Teaching has lacked many of

the lineaments of the other professions and teachers have some way to go before they

will be accepted as being on a par with doctors, lawyers, architects, accountants and

the like. Professions are defined in part by having a professional lead body or asso-

ciation which is responsible among other things for setting threshold entry standards

and which also has powers to de-register someone for professional misconduct.

These bodies are not unions: their interests tend not to be about conditions of service,

levels of pay, relationships with the employers and so forth, but about the nature and

quality of the profession itself. Since September 2000, teachers in England and in

Wales each have a General Teaching Council (in Scotland, they have had one since

1965), an essential to the establishing and on-going maintenance of the profession.

Qualifications and a governing professional council are some of the external char-

acteristics by which we might know a profession. Others go deeper. A fundamental

assumption informing the concept of 'profession' is that it exists to serve others.

Human societies have always needed others to provide them with certain services

which address the deepest things in our existence. We need to care for our bodies, our

minds and our souls, and so we find in any society the need for healers, teachers and

preachers. These three, all in their way re-interpreted in each society and for every

time, are the root professions and being a teacher attaches to one of them. Teachers,

like all professionals, work for others. They are public servants whose business is the

social and intellectual re-birth of society in the next generation, manifested in their

work with each individual learner. Teachers deal with the inside of people's minds,

and so with the habits and beliefs of their cultures. In this, teachers are close to artists

and writers, to the media and the politicians and other opinion-formers.

MIKE NEWBY

Of course, they themselves are citizens of the society which pays them for their

work. As significant members of their communities, they should demand freedom

responsibly to make decisions in the best interests of their pupils, professional deci-

sions which only they can take since others lack the skill and understanding to do so.

The last third of the twentieth century has seen an English public uneasy about the

extent of this freedom, being uncertain whether it wants teachers who are mute sup-

plicants to the prevailing orthodoxies of the day, or radicals suggesting new ways of

thinking and acting. I choose the latter.

The relationship between the need for high levels of technical competence (high stan-

dards) and high levels of professional ability was illustrated to me early in my career

when a colleague – decades more experienced – told me with some pride that he liked

to give a particular message to his teacher training students. His academic area was in

English literature, which he taught by bringing his crisply-honed literary sensibility

down into the lives of the young people who sat in his classes. He should have been in a

university English department but, because he worked in the rather more mundane con-

text of a teacher training college, as they were then called, he also had to teach them how

to teach. It was to this more humdrum part of his responsibilities that his comment

alluded. 'I tell them,'he said, 'that for those campus-based sessions which are all about

teaching English, as opposed actually to learning about English literature, you must

bring your bodies along, but you can leave your minds outside the door.'

There was a world of implication behind this injunction, and the obvious relish

with which he passed it on to me, a young newcomer into his territory. For him,

apparently, no-one could be taught how to teach: it was either something you knew

from birth or something to be picked up as you did it – a set of craft skills accumu-

lated as you served your time in the classroom. What was needed was stuff to teach.

That was why you came to college – to learn the stuff which you would one day teach

to others. The distinction was between knowledge and personality on the one hand,

and the – for him – bogus proposition on the other that learning to be a teacher went

much further. So for his student teachers to apply their minds to the practice of class-

room organisation, to pupil management, to the planning and handling of resources,

to the arrangement and presentation of knowledge itself in curriculum design, to

pupil assessment, to the keeping of records, to knowing how to talk to parents, to

working with colleagues, to being safe, to keeping within the law, and to all the other

sadly necessary but tedious professional tasks which teachers were, now and again,

forced to accomplish … this, if it took place on the campus, was a specious undertaking.

They'd pick all that up as they went along in the classroom. Hence his invitation to

leave their minds outside the door.

I have often thought about that revealing remark, each time embarrassed at the

state of teacher training which, in those days, it represented: an ignorance of, even a

contempt for, the complex of skills, knowledge, ideas and beliefs which teachers

need to study as they learn to become professionals. Disregarding the fact that it pro-

vided his own livelihood, my colleague would presumably have agreed with those

politicians who would have taken teacher training out of Higher Education and put it

entirely into the schools, superintended by experienced classroom teachers who

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could pass down to their apprentices all their good practice – and presumably all their

bad practice, too.

The opposite position is where we can find the rapprochement I have been search-

ing for between standards and professionalism. It lies in the value which Higher

Education can add to practice. All teachers need to meet high standards of technical

competence. Equally, the habits of mind espoused in Higher Education (of accumu-

lating knowledge, honouring evidence and of careful analysis) must be married to the

experience, minute by minute, of new practitioners as they practise their skills in

school. The idea of leaving the mind out of it insults the complex processes of teach-

ing. It illustrates the loss of consciousness which characterises some teacher training

more than 20 years ago. The insistence on the overwhelming value of practice which

that now defunct Secretary of State was intent upon introducing in the early 1990s

bore some resemblance to this mindlessness, for it left little of value for the Academy

to contribute to the shaping of new teachers. What has happened over the period I

have been considering is the sometimes difficult coming together of the two: the

thought and the action in the technically competent professional. It's what we all seek

to achieve, and the peace between the two sides, if indeed it has now finally broken

out, offers great hope for the future of our schools and all those who learn there.

POSTSCRIPT

Since writing the above, the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) in September 2005

changed its name to the Training & Development Agency for Schools (TDA) and its

function to embrace not only the preparation of school teachers but the whole of the

school workforce. The potential for partnership has thereby been increased, as an ele-

ment of teacher preparation must now deal with the teacher's capacity to work well

with other adults in the education of children and young people at school. The

emphasis is on multi-professionalism, with all the richness for new partnerships and

networks this can engender – and, so the cynic might say, for a thickening of the web

of potential discord as turf wars, so clear-cut before, now involve skirmishes across a

much broader front.

One good sign is the TDA's Teaching 2012 project. This asks questions about the

kinds of knowledge and skills which teachers will need in the years to come, the

answers to which will help to form the foundation of its changing agenda for teacher

preparation and development. Though funded by the Agency, the project is directed

by a group representing all the stakeholders. It could act as a model for the teacher

education of the future: collaborative, intent upon achieving high standards and quality,

and committed – since their work concerns other people's futures – to shouldering

that responsibility of all professional educators, which is to look ahead.

REFERENCES

Bell, D. (2003) Standards and Quality 2003/03: Annual Report of her Majesty's Chief Inspector of

Schools. London: HMSO.

MIKE NEWBY

Clarke, K. (1991) Speech to Conservative Party Conference: September

Gardiner, J. (1996) citing Anthea Millett, Chief Executive of TTA in Training Needs a Shake-up. Times

Educational Supplement, June 26.

Hansard (1996) quoted in House of Lords debate on society's Moral and Spiritual Well-being. July 5th

(1996). London: HMSO. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm/cmhansrd.htm.

Her Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI) (1982) The New Teacher in School. London: HMSO.

James, Lord (1972) Teacher Education and Training (the James Report). London: HMSO.

Millett, A. in Gardiner, J. (1997) Standard Bearer who keeps Cool. Times Educational Supplement ,

January 31st.

Phillips, M. (2002) Why I am a Progressive. London: New Statesman (January).

Thatcher, M. (1984) quoted in Wilenius, P. (2004) Enemies Within: Thatcher and the Unions, BBC.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3067563.stm.

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THE POLITICS OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Teacher education is a political activity. That is to say, the socialisation of teachers

into the work of schools inevitably involves some kind of relationship with the

distribution of symbolic and material power within and between societies. As Ginsberg

and Lindsay suggest;

Focussing on the political dimension, therefore, entails examining how

power … is distributed and organised among various individuals,

groups, communities and societies.

(Ginsberg and Lindsay, 1995, p. 4)

Efforts to reform teacher education are, therefore, almost always accompanied by

broader redefinitions of power relationships. These are often clearly seen when

changes of government bring about changes in policy. On other occasions apparent

'failures' of education systems to adequately socialise youth or to ensure a sufficient

supply of qualified labour, produce 'moral' or 'economic' panics. The answer is

always to reform education, and teacher education in particular.

Often the main vehicle for such reform is through government or quasi-govern-

ment agencies.

For example, much recent effort to 'reform'teacher education in 'devel-

oped' capitalist societies has been stimulated … by concerns to bring

teacher education under tighter control of state elites and by desires to

prepare teachers differently so that schools will function more effectively

in preparing more productive workers.

(Ginsberg and Lindsay, 1995, p. 6)

You will, no doubt, have your ears full of the current rhetoric concerning 'the new

economy' and 'globalisation' and the need to 'remain competitive' through 'world

class' institutions and 'quality assurance'' benchmarked' against 'best practice'. This

is the rhetoric not only of business elites but also of the governments they appear to

have captured.

But government and markets are not the only sources of legitimation for ideas and

practices in education. Teachers are often committed to the 'improvement' of society.

Often they see traditional educational and social structures as distributing educational

opportunity, economic advantage and social power in ways that, for many, restrict the

possibilities for human development that education is supposed to facilitate.

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RICHARD BATES

9. REGULATION AND AUTONOMY IN TEACHER

EDUCATION: SYSTEM OR DEMOCRACY?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 127–140.

128

As Bob Connell puts it, for many of us:

Education has fundamental connections with the idea of human emanci-

pation, though it is constantly in danger of being captured for other

interests. In a society disfigured by class exploitation, sexual and racial

repression, and in chronic danger of war and environmental destruction,

the only education worth the name is one that forms people capable of

taking part in their own liberation. The business of the school is not

propaganda; it is equipping people with the knowledge and skills and

concepts relevant to remaking a dangerous and disordered world.

(Connell, 1982, p. 208)

The sources of such commitment are found occasionally in governments (particularly

of the 'progressive' kind), but more frequently in civil society, for here is where the

competition for ideas, resources, organization and power originates. Thus, while the

study of state influence on teacher education is important, it is also important to

understand:

… how teacher education is linked with relations of power and resource

distributions in civil society, for example, those involving social class,

racial/ethnic, and gender relations as they are socially constructed and

contested by individuals and groups in homes, neighbourhoods, religious

institutions, and professional associations and unions.

(Ginsberg and Lindsay 1995, p. 4)

Schools and their teachers are inevitably and continuously caught up in this struggle

for ideas and for institutional control. The struggle for control of teacher education is

part of this broader struggle.

It would be easy to characterise this struggle as a struggle between government

and civil society, and indeed in some situations this may approximate reality.

However, both government and civil society are themselves sites of struggle and con-

testation. This is especially the case as many societies become more open, both in

membership (through patterns of migration of significant numbers of people within

and between nations), and in the exchange of ideas (through both traditional and

emergent media).

It is important, then, to recognise that the issue of regulation and autonomy in

teacher education is caught up in a much more complex political process than the

simple and direct imposition of government regulation.

GOVERNMENTS AND REGULATION

Certainly, as governments almost universally hold the purse strings, governments

everywhere have the greatest capacity to regulate. Indeed the basis for such regulation

lies in the increasing recognition that governments have a responsibility to maintain

an appropriate standard of professional competence in the teaching profession.

RICHARD BATES

Indeed:

The increased involvement of or commitment by states to fund, or at least

regulate, teacher education was signalled in principle 13 of the 1966

UNESCO 'Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers':

'Completion of an approved course in an appropriate teacher education

institution should be required of all persons entering the profession

(Dove, p 191)

(Ginsberg and Lindsay, 1995, pp. 6–7)

And, in country after country, commitment to this principle has led to significant

attempts by government to define what is 'appropriate' and 'approved' in teacher

education.

Ginsberg and Lindsay's (1995) collaborators showed this process in action in England,

Australia, The United States, China, Sri Lanka, Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso, South

Africa, Germany, Mexico, and Papua and New Guinea during the 1990's. More recent

commentators have explored the issue of regulation and autonomy in England (Furlong

et al., 2000; Gilroy, 2002), Portugal (Alarco, 2002; Flores and Shiroma, 2003), the USA

(Beyer, 2002; Bullough, 2002; Cochran-Smith, 2002, 2003), Scotland (Hartley, 2002);

Brazil (Flores and Shiroma, 2003) China (Zou Yu, 2002), South Africa (Robinson, 2003)

and Australia (Bates, 2002, Sullivan 2002), during the current decade.

Standards for teachers and teacher education are appearing all over the place.

Sometimes, as in the US and England, through political processes and the establish-

ment of agencies directed towards external control of teacher behaviour and

performance. Sometimes, as in Australia, through processes of self-regulation

sponsored and monitored by government. There is, as Ben Levin (1998) observes, a

veritable 'epidemic of education policy'in teacher education as elsewhere.

The avowed purpose of all this policy, all this regulation, is the improvement of

student performance through the improvement of teachers via the improvement of

teacher education.

What is notable, however, is the form that such 'improvement' takes. It is, in

almost every instance, through a particular mechanism of accountability.

ACCOUNTABILITY AND TEACHER EDUCATION

In almost all of the instances where greater regulation of teacher education has been

proposed or implemented, the rhetoric of government has been that it is necessary for

the improvement of educational performance in schools through the improvement of

teacher preparation. If significant amounts of government money are to be spent on

education it seems perfectly reasonable that the institutions that spend that money

should be held to account for the quality of their performance. Thus standards are

developed and curricular specifications set down. On the basis of these specifica-

tions tests are developed and implemented to ensure performance against bench-

marks and to encourage continuous improvement.

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130

In some instances, as in England, these requirements are highly specific,

developed by an agency set up for the purpose (the Teacher Training Authority-TTA)

and inspected through a second, purpose-built, agency (The Office for Standards in

Education-OfSTED). Compliance with standards and inspection is ensured through

the imposition of significant financial penalties for non-compliance. As Gilroy

comments:

This reform gave unprecedented control of initial teacher education to

the minister for education, operating through the TTA. As ever more

standards were created that courses had to ensure they met, university

education departments struggled to meet them, knowing they could make

little or no impact on the centralist controlling mechanism that they were

now subject to …

(Gilroy, 2002, p. 248)

There have been several consequences. Firstly, the relative autonomy of universities

to develop and teach courses that they believed were appropriate in terms of intellec-

tual standards and social need was seriously compromised. Secondly, the financial

viability of courses in teacher education was brought into question through the trans-

fer of significant resources from universities to schools and the financial penalties

imposed as the result of inspections. As Gilroy suggests:

As funding per student fell, often as a result of a relatively weak score

from an OfSTED inspection, and workloads increased, an increasing

number of departments felt unable to continue offering such courses, with

others seriously considering withdrawing from the process altogether.

(Gilroy, 2002, p. 248)

The regime imposed on teacher education in England is an extreme example of

regulation. So extreme, in fact, as to lead one Swedish interviewee in Mahony and

Hextall's (2000) investigation of the change, to comment that 'What is happening in

teacher education in England is a story we use to frighten the children'.

But a similar logic appears to be behind current moves in other jurisdictions. The

United States, for instance, through the 'Ready to Teach'Act appears to be driven by

the same impulses to require detailed accountability from teacher education programs

(AACTE, 2003). The problem, as Apple (2001) and Cochran-Smith (2003) among

others, have pointed out, is the simplistic nature of the mechanisms involved in

imposing such accountability when compared with the real complexities of teaching.

But even where peer review rather than government inspection is in place, inap-

propriate forms of review can still have disastrous consequences, as Bullough et al .

(2003) show. Their conclusion is that 'the problem is not the existence of a system of

accountable quality assurance but the form it takes' (2003, p. 54).

The difficulty seems to be that the mechanism typically favoured by governments

is far too limited and inflexible. This is not only a problem for teacher education, but

also a problem for education more generally. Indeed, as several well-informed critics

RICHARD BATES

have suggested, highly standardised 'high stakes' testing and accountability regimes

result 'not in improving schools but in damaging them' (Gallagher, 2000; Glovin,

2000; McNeil, 2000; Lissovoy and Mclaren, 2003, p. 132; Popham, 1999).

The reason for this apparently contradictory result is well set out by Lissovoy and

McLaren who argue that:

The key principle at work in the use of standardised tests, which is what

allows them to serve as the mechanism for accountability initiatives, is

the reduction of learning and knowledge to a number, i.e. a score. Once

this takes place, scores can be compared, statistically analysed and var-

iously manipulated.

(Lissovoy and McLaren, 2003, p. 13)

This presents particular problems for teachers who cannot facilitate learning effec-

tively without taking the quite often disparate circumstances of students and their

communities into account. The equation of learning with a test score can therefore do

considerable violence to the interests of teacher and student alike:

In reducing learning to a test score, policy makers seek to make the

knowledge of disparate individuals commensurable. Never mind that

violence is done to the concreteness of that individual's humanness and

particularity; once knowledge is reified in this way, it can be manipulated

and described in the same fashion that one is accustomed to in manipulating

and describing products (commodities) of all kinds.

(Lissovoy and McLaren, 2003, p. 133)

Treating learning as a commodity allows it to be compared, assessed and subjected to

valuation and pricing mechanisms which result in market-like mechanisms of financial

and regulatory rewards and penalties. But this can only be done if the individuality of

the person is replaced by the standardisation of the evaluatory criteria.

The violence in this erasure of particularity and difference then extends

outwards, as students are arbitrarily held back, without regard to individual

differences in development, and as teachers are given preset curricula,

without regard to their own interests and talents and their student's

particular needs. 'The spread of the principle imposes on the whole world

an obligation to become identical, to become total'(Adorno, 1995:146).

(Lissovoy and McLaren 2003, p. 133)

Ball (2003) elaborates this argument, pointing to the generalised characteristics of

this new form of management and the interrelated policy technologies through which

it imposed: the market, managerialism and performativity (2003, p. 215). The cumulative

effect of these technologies is to significantly redefine the nature of teaching and

impose a direct intervention into the lives and identities of teachers. In effect

'(k)nowledge and knowledge relations, including the relationships between learners,

are de-socialized' (Ball, 2003, p. 226).

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132

This has immense implications for teacher education as well as for the motivation

and performance of teachers. It also squeezes out of teaching and teacher education

consideration of social and ethical issues that relate to the purpose and conse-

quences of particular forms of education by defining education as 'what works'

in terms of the standardised and universalised criteria of the official curriculum

and tests.

The space for the operation of autonomous ethical codes based in a shared

moral language is colonized or closed down … The policy technologies of

market, management and performativity leave no space for an autonomous

or collective ethical self. These technologies have potentially profound con-

sequences for the nature of teaching and for the inner-life of the teacher.

(Ball, 2003, p. 226)

REGULATION AND COMMUNITY

But is this process of 'making the whole world one'what people want? I am reminded

of Thom Greenfield's assertion that the world of reified educational administration dis-

sociated from the reality of everyday life is not at all what people want from schools.

What many people seem to want from schools is that schools reflect the

values that are central and meaningful in their lives. If this view is cor-

rect, schools are artefacts that people struggle to shape in their own

image. Only in such forms do they have faith in them; only in such forms

can they participate comfortably in them.

(Greenfield, 1973, p. 570)

What Greenfield reminds us of here is the intimate connection of learning with

identity and identity with community. At the heart of this process is not the issue of

standardisation and commensurability but of that of an increasing diversity of values

and ways of life.

There is a significant and increasingly influential body of theory in education

which puts community at the centre of the educational process along with increased

attention to social, ethical and moral dilemmas (Starratt, 1991, 2003; Sergiovanni,

1992; Grace, 1995; Begley, 1999; Greenfield, 1999; Goldring and Greenfield, 2002).

Moroever, within the wider literature, concerns with the nature of civil society and

the production of social capital is a major topic of debate (Putnam, 2002). There are

also strong arguments put forward that parents should have the right to send their

children to a school of their own choice (Chubb and Moe, 1990), presumably so that

their children absorb a preferred set of values as well as achieving a particular kind

of educational performance.

Indeed, some argue, along with Greenfield, that education is unlikely to be mean-

ingful without a consensus between community and school over the values that the

school should represent. In an extreme form, such schools would represent 'covenantal'

communities which serve to confirm particular identities. Sergiovanni, for instance,

RICHARD BATES

argues that such schools provide

… the kind of morally based contractual relationships that can bond peo-

ple together. Bonding relationships respond to the reality that emotion,

values, and membership connections are important human impulses.

They also acknowledge the aspect of human nature that places others

before self-interest. Finally, they give needed meaning and significance

to our work lives. These inclinations join covenant and virtue.

(Sergiovanni, 1992, p. 102)

There is a tendency then

… to see covenantal communities or communities of interest as the

appropriate bases for the binding together of the members of schools into

moral communities with shared values, purposes and goals, often around

religious or ethnic identities, and to see this as a necessary foundation

for 'effective'education.

(Bates, 2003, p. 121)

In diverse societies it is an immediately appealing principle that each group, culture,

collectivity should be able to develop its own covenant with schools; a covenant that

would represent both the instrumental achievements required of the school for par-

ticipation in economic life and the normative achievements (the particular form of

social capital) which binds the community together. It would follow that each group

would develop a form of teacher education that would be regulated, not by govern-

ment edict, but by community determination of the kind of teachers it required for its

schools. Teacher education, like schooling would be privatised and subordinated to

sectarian communal ways of life.

However, as I have pointed out elsewhere, linking community with schooling in

this particular way has problems of its own, for

… covenantal communities … in themselves neither comprise, nor nec-

essarily contain the constituents of beneficial moral and social capi-

tal … . The social capital of particular networks can have both positive

and negative effects for individuals and society.

(Bates, 2003, p. 120)

Putnam, for instance, argues that:

… we cannot assume that social capital is everywhere and always a good

thing. Although the phrase 'social capital'has a felicitous ring about it,

we must take care to consider its potential vices, or even the possibility

that virtuous forms can have unintended consequences that are not

socially desirable … In short, we must understand the purposes and

effects of social capital. Networks and norms might, for example, benefit

those who belong – to the detriment of those who do not. Social capital might

be most prevalent among groups of people who are already advantaged,

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REGULATION AND AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

134

thereby widening political and economic inequalities between those

groups and others who are poor in social capital … Moreover, some

forms of social capital are good for democracy and social health; others

are (or threaten to be) destructive.

(Putnam, 2002, p. 9)

Such groups as the Klu Klux Klan, El Quaeda, or the Italian or Russian mafias spring

immediately to mind as examples of groups that produce negative social capital.

Moreover, such covenantal communities can be highly divisive of the wider society

through the maintenance of separate or indeed isolationist doctrines. Peshkin (1986)

provides a powerful and initially sympathetic account of a school which is certainly

'virtuous' in terms of its covenant with its community, but which is eventually isolating

in terms of the wider society.

The academy epitomizes the case of a community successfully projecting

its idiosyncratic outlook onto its school. More than just a community

school, however, the academy is a 'communal' institution … Communal

describes a community whose strong commitment to its own welfare

inevitably places it in conflict with other communities that do not accept

its doctrinal foundation. A communal school serves an internally inte-

grative or community-maintenance function. That is, it simultaneously

links believers together and separates them from non-believers. In its

defensive capacity, the academy shields its students from competitors by

promoting dichotomies not only of we and they, but also of right and

wrong. We follow God's truth in God's preferred institutions; they are the

unfortunates of Satan's dark, unrighteous world.

(Peshkin, 1986, p. 282)

So, regulating teacher education in the interests of particular groups in a diverse soci-

ety seems as unsatisfactory a solution as the standardising, universalising processes

of government regulation previously examined. Is there an alternative?

LIVING TOGETHER? AUTONOMY AND REGULATION

IN A DEMOCRATIC WORLD

Two theorists who have been particularly concerned with the conflict between the

search for universal values on the one hand and the apparent increase in ethically defen-

sible but contrasting ways of life on the other are John Gray and Alain Touraine. Gray,

in his examination of the traditions of liberalism in Western societies argues that:

If liberalism has a future, it is in giving up the search for a rational con-

sensus on the best way of life. As a consequence of mass migration, new

technologies of communication and continued cultural experimentation,

nearly all societies today contain several ways of life, with many people

belonging to more than one. The liberal ideal of toleration which looks to

RICHARD BATES

a rational consensus on the best way of life was born in societies divided

on the claims to a single way of life. It cannot show us how to live in

societies that harbour many ways of life.

(Gray, 2000, p. 2)

If the pursuit of a 'one best way' of life for all within and between societies is to be

surrendered, what, then, is the alternative? Gray suggests that it is in reaching a

modus vivendi that accepts there are many forms of life in which humans can flourish

and constructing institutions that allow for such acceptance.

The aim of modus vivendi cannot be to still the conflict of values. It is to

reconcile individuals and ways of life honouring conflicting values to a life

in common. We do not need common values in order to live together in peace.

We need common institutions in which many forms of life can coexist.

(Gray, 2000, pp. 6–7)

Touraine takes a similar view.

No multi-cultural society is possible unless we can turn to a universalist

principle that allows socially and culturally different individuals and

groups to communicate with one another. But neither is a multi-cultural

society possible if that universalist principle defines one conception of

social organization and personal life that is judged to be both normal

and better than others. The call for freedom to build a personal life is the

only universalist principle that does not impose one form of social

organization and cultural practices. It is not reducible to laissez faire

economics or to pure tolerance, first, because it demands respect for the

freedom of all individuals and therefore a rejection of exclusion, and sec-

ondly because it demands that any reference to a cultural identity be

legitimised in terms of the freedom and equality of all, and not by appeal

to a social order, a tradition, or the requirements of public order.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 167)

The principle on which Gray's modus vivendi and Touraine's advocacy of new forms

of collective and personal life is that of a personal freedom which respects the personal

freedom of others.

… all individuals have a right to freedom and equality, and that there are

therefore limits that cannot be transgressed by any government or code of

law. Those limits relate both to cultural rights such as the rights of women

and to political rights such as freedom of expression and choice. This

position is threatened both by those who would reduce society to the sta-

tus of a market and by those who want to transform it into a community.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 168)

In this, there is implicit the requirement for both the respect of diversity and of the

obligation of cultural communication.

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136

In a world of intense cultural exchanges, there can be no democracy

unless we recognize the diversity of cultures and the relations of domination

that exist between them … .Cultural liberation must be combined with an

attempt to promote cultural communication, and this presupposes both

an acceptance of diversity and a recourse to a principle of unity.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 195)

The problem for education is that education systems have largely dealt with cultural

issues by defining education as a technical requirement and excluding cultural con-

cerns, thus violating both the principle of respect for persons and the possibility of

cultural communication.

… it is no longer possible to believe that the education system, which

refuses to take children's private lives into consideration, is the best

means of promoting the equality of all or of reducing the real inequalities

that exist. The school system favours the central categories which imple-

ment a system of rules, laws and technologies, and creates obstacles for

both innovators and children from dominated cultures.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 196)

What is required if a modus vivendi is to be achieved is an education system directed

towards different ends for education is central to the construction of a society in

which we can indeed live together.

If we are to be able to answer the question 'Can we live together?', or, in

other words, 'How can we reconcile the freedom of the personal Subject,

the recognition of cultural differences and the institutional guarantees

that safeguard that freedom and those differences?', we have to discuss

education.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 264)

Touraine's analysis of contemporary school systems is that they are far to focussed on

the process of socialization into either the economy or the community, or perhaps

more frequently into that particular combination of work-skills and dominant nor-

mative structures that characterise a specific nation state. But, in fact, if the nation

state is breaking down under the pressures of globalisation and if communities are

refuges from broader social action then such socialization is inappropriate. If the

individual as a social actor (what Touraine calls the Subject) must now locate

him/herself within a world where social, economic, cultural and personal identities

are constantly open and constantly changing, and where personal and cultural identity

is constantly subject to modification, then schools must concentrate far more on

equipping students to construct and reconstruct their selves through processes of

technical mastery and cultural communication.

A school for the Subject will move further and further away from the

model that sees education as an agency for socialization. Schools are

RICHARD BATES

obviously part of a particular society. They teach that society's

language, and history and geography lessons concentrate mainly on

national or regional realities. Having such roots is essential, but

schools are not there for society's benefit. Their primary mission must

not be to train citizens or workers, but to enhance individuals' ability to

become Subjects. Schools must concentrate less on transmitting a body

of knowledge, norms and representations, and more on teaching

children how to handle instruments and on personal development and

self-expression.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 273)

Such personal development and self-expression can only be achieved if the school

becomes a communications network rather than a socialization agency. This is the

more so for children from cultural minorities or otherwise disadvantaged back-

grounds.

The need to make the transition to a school that communicates is … most

urgent for schools attended by children from poor social backgrounds;

when a school does not function as a communications network, violence

breaks out and destroys the institution.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 277)

Or, more explicitly,

A school that communicates must give special priority to both the capac-

ity for self-expression, oral and written, and the ability to understand

written and oral messages. We do not perceive and understand the Other

thanks to some act of empathy; we do so by understanding what the

Other is saying, thinking and feeling, and through our ability to converse

with the Other. There is no communication without language, and public

opinion is quite right to insist that schools must give priority to teaching

the language which children will use in their most important exchanges.

Above all, schools must involve their pupils in dialogue, and teach them

to argue amongst themselves by analysing the discourse of the Other,

both in order to learn to handle the national language and to be able to

perceive the Other, as that is a pre-condition for living together.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 279)

UNESCO's Commission on Education argues a similar point.

We have to learn to live together by developing our understanding of

others, and of their history, traditions and spirituality. By doing so, we can

create a new spirit which, thanks to our perception that we are increasingly

dependent upon one another, can make a joint analysis of the dangers and

challenges of the future, encourage the realization of joint projects or the

intelligent and peaceful handling of the inevitable conflicts.

(UNESCO, 1996, p. 18)

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REGULATION AND AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION

138

What such a future requires from education is not socialisation into pre-existing

social structures and norms directed towards the preservation of a particular society,

but rather the development of the capabilities that will equip students to construct

their identity as a Subject within a global context and to communicate freely with

others in the construction of new forms of sociability.

So long as schools are defined by their socializing function, it is obvious

that their organization and norms will be defined by 'society', which

actually means the administration. If, however, schools are centred not

upon society, but upon individual Subjects, it becomes clear that the way

they work must be decided by those who teach and learn in them – that

is, by those who spend most of their lives in schools or who are preparing

for their personal futures there.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 283)

The implication of this argument is that teachers, rather than be subject to the admin-

istrative regulation of either particular state, or a particular community, must have

their independence guaranteed. But that independence must be open to scrutiny and

democratic debate. Thus autonomy within a democratic debate that facilitates inter-

cultural communication, the freedom of which is guaranteed by law, is fundamental

to effective schools that prepare us to live together. Indeed …

The independence of teachers, like the independence of the judiciary, is

an essential pre-condition for democracy, whose primary task is to

restrict the power of the state and social powers of all kinds.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 285)

Finally,

A school that is no more than an administrative service is unacceptable

(Touraine, 2000, p. 287)

CONCLUSION

The thrust of this chapter has been towards examining the perils of regulation by

markets (and their proxy organization- the nation state) or subservience to partisan

communities. The future is dependent on our resistance to these two forms of admin-

istration. As Touraine argues:

… the only way to overcome both the absolute power of markets and the

dictatorship of communities is to enlist in the service of the personal

Subject and its freedom by fighting on two fronts, against both the

desocialized flows of the financial economy and the closure of neo-

communitarian regimes. The two struggles complement each other.

(Touraine, 2000, p. 290)

RICHARD BATES

Education, and most particularly, teacher education, is inevitably caught up in this

struggle. Despite the increasing focus demanded by state administrations on the

technical curriculum teachers every day face the reality of their students'struggles to

form their identity from the fragments of various cultures in which they are

enmeshed. The primary task of schooling is to help students develop the capabilities

that will allow them to integrate, at the level of personality, those differing fragments,

and to operate effectively within both the economic and the social and cultural

structures of an increasingly global world. Schools therefore need to model forms of

cultural communication that allow the democratic negotiation of individual commit-

ments. They need, therefore to be more than simply an administrative system. Indeed,

their autonomy from such a system must be guaranteed.

In order to function effectively in such schools, teachers must be prepared in ways

that enhance their own capabilities for cultural communication and democratic

negotiation as well as in the curricular knowledge and technical expertise required to

enhance the knowledge of their students. If this is to be achieved then teacher educa-

tors themselves must continue to be part of a broad conversation about the nature of

personal, cultural and social development as well as that over economic objectives

and socialisation into dominant cultural and national norms.

The role of government here is not to regulate the technical detail of teacher edu-

cation as an administrative service but, rather, to regulate the conditions of teaching

and of teacher education in ways that preserve the autonomy of educators, enabling

them to continue to take part in such a debate, and to incorporate such cultural

communication into their own sense of self as a Subject and as a professional.

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RICHARD BATES

The tendency in education writing on globalisation has been to examine the congruence

of educational policies in western societies (Marginson, 1997; Dale, 1999, 2000) and

the international effects of global governance of education by powerful transnational

institutions such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

and the European Union (Lawn, 2001). The authors tend to identify massive changes

in approaches to educational governance that have resulted in changed professional

practice. The changes are said to include the establishment of a broadly common

policy and management agenda that is characterised by 'new managerialism', devo-

lution and rigid accountability structures (Thomson, 2001), entrepreneurialism, and

a commitment to a particular approach to 'school effectiveness' (Angus, 1993;

Morley and Rassool, 2000). There are few studies, however, of the dynamics of

educational life in micro-political contexts that enable or challenge or bring about

(much less resist) the kinds of teacher professional reshaping and renorming that are

typically associated with globalisation. I attempt to analyse such micro-shaping in

this chapter, which, through reporting an ethnographic study in a site of educational

practice, examines how school managers and teachers dealt with government policy

intervention and, in the process, both willingly and unwillingly implemented signif-

icant educational change. The implications of the case study for teacher education are

discussed.

With few exceptions, education writers ascribe to 'strong' globalisation theories

(Wilding, 1997; Stryker, 1998) that generally emphasise the dominance of the global

economy over national and international politics. There is a tendency to present

globalisation as economic determinism, homogeneous in its effects throughout the

planet. Such globalisation theory tends to be essentialist and reductionist as it implies

a totalising structure that imposes its will without much if any consideration of agency,

local politics or resistance. As Wilding (1997, p. 411) summarises this argument:

The term [globalisation] is most commonly used to describe certain

trends in economic, political, social and cultural development. The term

is also used, however, to explain such trends – they are as they are, the

argument runs, because of this force we call globalisation.

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10. GLOBALISATION AND THE RESHAPING OF

TEACHER PROFESSIONAL CULTURE: DO WE

TRAIN COMPETENT TECHNICIANS OR

INFORMED PLAYERS IN THE POLICY PROCESS?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 141–156.

142

Such conceptions of globalisation give little attention to ways in which global agendas

might be asserted or resisted and played out in particular regions or sites, such as

schools or clusters of schools, rather than simply being received and implemented.

Globalisation is typically presented as an external phenomenon that results, at the

school level, in such neo-liberal features as managerialism, competition and market

arrangements. The complex shifts between, say, 'welfarism' and 'new managerialism'

(Gewirtz and Ball, 2000) that may come about at the school level may be closely

described and explored in terms of 'discursive shifts' (Gewirtz and Ball, 2000) but

rarely explained. And because so many writers reduce explanations to strong, totalising

versions of globalisation theory, these things are described more or less as if they

simply 'are'; as if they are current features of the social and educational landscape

that exist in the globalisation era and which need to be mapped and described rather

than explained in context. Their meanings are rarely analysed in sites of educational

practice.

Such distal accounts of change in education often rely on generalised discourses of

globalisation to explain the self-disciplining effects of such 'new neo-liberal tech-

nologies of institutional control'(Beck, 1999) as new managerialism. For example, in

critiquing 'school effectiveness', Morley and Rassool (2000, p. 169) state as given

that 'neo-liberal policy meanings have redefined not only the educational process but

also teachers' consciousness as workers'. Their approach to the analysis of new man-

agerialism assumes the successful realisation of the outcomes that are envisaged in

putative 'regimes of truth' that are seemingly imposed on schools and within which

people are seemingly captured without demur. Or, as Bacchi (2000, p. 52) puts it,

'those who are deemed to "hold" power are portrayed as the ones making the discourse,

whereas those who are seen as lacking power are described as constituted in the

discourse'.

A major exception to the 'globalisation explains all' trend is Roger Dale. When it

comes to seemingly common global education policies, Dale (1999, 2000) emphasises

the importance of investigating how and why a particular meaning system may have

come to appear dominant in particular places. He insists that the effects of assertive

capitalism on education, exerted either directly or indirectly through the impact of

globalisation on states, occur 'through mechanisms that can be specified and traced '

(my emphasis). Following Dale, this paper argues that at both the micro and macro

levels educational change is concerned with the negotiation and contestation of edu-

cational meaning and educational politics. This argument has important implications

for teacher education.

METHODOLOGY

I endeavour to illustrate that any educational change, even within the current era of

globalisation, must be accomplished in the dynamic world of complex human agents.

To varying extents, we all share and contest overlapping multi-cultures, values and

aspirations, and the complex politics of everyday life. The ethnographic data reported

in the chapter indicate that teachers and principals have the capacity to influence

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organisational norms, practices and structure, while also simultaneously both adapting

to and influencing strongly institutionalised professional expectations within schools.

Ethnographic analysis of such processes and discourses, through which, not by

which, social relations and identities are constituted, may shed a little light on how

management and organisational change gets 'accomplished' in schools.

The approach to gathering data was to observe as much as we could at 'Grandridge

Secondary College' and speak to people there as often we could. We interviewed

seventeen people on tape, some on many occasions, and had numerous other conver-

sations. The interviews took place in offices, vacant schoolrooms or homes and were

tape-recorded. We spoke to people informally before and after meetings, in staffrooms,

in the yard, stairwells and corridors. We conducted interviews first with several indi-

viduals in key positions within the school and, at the end of each, asked these inter-

viewees to nominate other people with whom they thought we should talk in order to

gain a diversity of views and opinions. We made a list of names most often mentioned

and went as far down the list as we could in the time available. Many on the list did

not have formal interviews but did take part in conversations. Interviews were tran-

scribed and interviewees checked the transcripts for fairness, relevance and accuracy.

We then drew on the transcripts and observation and conversation notes. In this chap-

ter, pseudonyms are used for the school and for participants. No real names are used

except for very public figures.

Grandridge Secondary College

By the beginning of the 1990s, despite periodic conflicts between management and

teachers, staff at Grandridge Secondary College had been working for more than two

decades to institutionalise a general set of progressive educational practices and

agendas that many teacher activists had been asserting in Victoria and Australia since

the 1960s. Grandridge had become widely recognised among educators as a 'leading

school' not just in contributing to the development of progressive and socially-just

education, but also, through the commitment, innovation and sheer hard work of its

staff, in helping to make progressive education respectable and broadly legitimate

(Angus and Brown, 1997). Among staff there was a widely felt sense of commitment

to improving the lot of the 'western suburbs' (a term used to describe a large region

of Melbourne characterised by low SES), an emphasis on student centred pedagogy,

a belief that curriculum reform could contribute to social as well as educational

reform, and a belief that the education profession, including teacher unions, needed

to be active in policy debates. Grandridge teachers tended to see themselves as being at

the forefront of educational thinking and educational activism. They were committed to

making Grandridge a great school and were generally committed to the progressive

educational ideals that had gradually taken hold of a large part of the teaching

profession (Angus and Brown, 1997).

In Victoria, a measure of the contribution of activist educators like those at

Grandridge to the policy process is that, in the early to mid 1980s, teachers, through

their unions, had become regarded as legitimate participants with government in edu-

cational innovation and change. Such 'partnership', as I have indicated, did not come

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GLOBALISATION AND RESHAPING TEACHER CULTURE

144

easily. It was an outcome of a period of contestation throughout the 1960s and 1970s.

Therefore, the school Jack Regan took over as principal in 1989 boasted a very strong

union branch with membership of 100% of staff. Jack now attributes Grandridge's

success during that time to the efforts of key individuals whom he regards as catalysts

and curriculum leaders. He is able to list a dozen such people in key curriculum

areas. One of these says of Jack:

He came to a school which was very dwindling in numbers and strug-

gling. And a lot of talented staff here were involved in improving the sorts

of programs that the school could offer and widening the types of people

that the school would appeal to, to come here. And over several years a

really brilliant job was done by all.

The election of the Kennett government in Victoria in late 1992 signalled the end

of any sense of partnership between teachers and government. Before it was elected,

members of the Kennett-led Coalition (Liberal and National) parties emphasised that

the new Government would introduce fundamental changes in education and the public

sector generally. This point had been made perfectly clear by the leader of the Victorian

Liberal Party, when he stated unequivocally prior to the 1992 election that:

Left wing advocates of progressive education have captured the curriculum

with the aim of using it to restructure society according to their socialist

ideals … In contrast, the Coalition acknowledges that education must

promote the common beliefs, values and knowledge on which our society

is based.

As the October 1992 election grew nearer, the likelihood of a change of government

grew greater. Teachers were expecting the worst. There was no secret that education

would be dealt with harshly. The broad policy introduced by the new government for

reforming school education had the evocative title of 'Schools of the Future'(SotF).

Every government school in the State had become a so-called School of the Future

by the government's third year. The policy was intended to curtail the 'social

engineering' influence of 'radical'teachers and teacher unions, and to return the control

of schools to communities. 'Quality' education was to be achieved by the adoption of

'world's best practice'in the management of schools. In this hostile education policy

environment, and in the midst of an immediate round of school closures and a wave

of teacher redundancies (55 schools were closed in three months and 17 per cent of

teachers were removed from the system over 3 years), many Grandridge staff looked

to their principal, Jack Regan, to provide some direction.

The Schools of the Future Information Kit (DSE, 1993) states that the 'aim of

Schools of the Future is to improve the quality of education for students by moving

to our schools the responsibility to make decisions, set priorities and control

resources'. There was little if any reference to educational processes, pedagogy, teach-

ing or learning, or relations among students and teachers. Terms such as marketing,

accountability, outcomes, efficiency, appraisal and competitiveness, however, were used

freely in the policy documents and supporting materials. Improved educational

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outcomes and efficiency would be achieved, it was emphasised, by establishing 'an

accountability framework' which would include, as its most crucial element, the

'School Charter'. This was referred to as the 'business plan'for the school. The Charter

would set the benchmarks against which the school was to be judged by clients and by

the system. In fact, the charter was regarded under the policy as a 'contract' between

the school and both the local community and the Victorian government.

The principal of Grandridge Secondary College, Jack Regan, had previously relied

on his powers of persuasion and his reputation among the staff as a savvy player of

the Education Department games in order to influence staff opinion. He employed

this style in bringing the staff to accept his recommendation, as soon as the Kennett

government had been elected and had introduced its flagship Schools of the Future

policy, to become a 'pilot' school in the program. For at least two reasons, looking

back, this episode, and particularly the writing of the first School Charter as required

under SotF policy, seem to have been critical incidents in reshaping the school's

values and practices. First, they enabled an airing of alternative value positions that

resulted in the first major step towards consolidating 'new' business-like values in

the school culture. Second, although the School Charter was written in terms that

many staff intended as defensive of the school's established educational values and

culture, it was nonetheless the first clear example of group compromise on previously

cherished positions. These points require some discussion.

Becoming a pilot School of the Future: the school charter

Jack was the central player in the decision process. He was remarkably insistent that

Grandridge Secondary College join the pilot SotF program. The change of government

did not alter his basic pragmatic belief that: 'It is better to be inside the tent pissing

out than outside the tent pissing in.'This was the theme of a strongly argued memo

he sent to all staff prior to a forum at which the decision whether Grandridge would

enter the pilot program was to be made:

FOR THE PAST SEVEN YEARS A SYSTEM OF WINNERS AND LOSERS

HAS BEEN OPERATING

there is no zoning

funding is enrolment driven

Plus in the past five years we have 'recruited'students from other schools

thus we are more than twice as 'rich' as we might have been [had our

enrolment remained stable over that period] … The point here is that we

don't have to wait for Schools of the Future to see winners and losers.

Rich and Poor. WE HAVE IT NOW.

The fact that we are presently in the WINNER Category is no cause for

complacency.

The DSE has suggested a consultative (Pilot program) process. To say

'we don't like your ideas' is not politically smart at all.

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GLOBALISATION AND RESHAPING TEACHER CULTURE

146

Participation in a pilot program is not tame acceptance. Involvement

with a pilot program is good democratic practice. Boycotting is always

an absolute last resort, and is rarely successful.

All of the above points were made at a specially convened Curriculum

Policy Committee. More than 45 teachers attended. Speakers generally

acknowledged dissatisfaction with much of the policy while at the same

time recognising that the best way of influencing the Schools of the

Future Program was to sit at the table and influence the decisions.'

(Staff memo 12/92)

Jack had a long record as a consultative, union-friendly principal and was trusted by

staff. Because of his persuasiveness, he quickly secured general acceptance of the

view that joining the Schools of the Future program was the pragmatic thing to do.

He was able to highlight important continuities within the foreshadowed changes that

might occur under the new government. Grandridge Secondary College could, and

would, he asserted, remain a player in education debate and make the policies 'less

bad'. Jack was advocating strategic compliance. For many staff, the message that

they could work to shape the policy from within was a winner. Jack had sold this

message heavily and lobbied very hard prior to the forum, but, as one of his critics

put it, 'the vote wasn't even close'. Even one who was ambivalent about Jack's

argument was able to conclude: 'Jack's built up a lot of points. He'll be forgiven for

some mistakes'.

The next stage was to write the School Charter. Again, Jack took the lead.

According to one teacher on the Charter writing group:

We went into the meeting and Jack had the charter written out and he

said 'we're going to have percentage increases in this, and percentage

increases in that, and percentage increases in the next', and then

Graham just said, 'Well, it really sounds like Stalin doesn't it? You know,

its a five-year plan, and really what's going to happen is our production

quotas are going to be made in order to be able to fit the model'.

I cannot emphasise too strongly that the central point about the Charter was that it

would be the school's business plan. There can be no doubt that the Charter was pro-

duced (at Grandridge and other schools) in an educational policy environment that

was heavily coercive. As I have emphasised, the incoming conservative government

had made it very plain long before it was elected that schools would be in for a major

shakeup. In keeping with Jack's message of practicing strategic compliance, and

recognising the seachange that the election of the Kennett government symbolised, a

number of staff saw the writing of the Charter as requiring a balancing act between

'giving the government what it wants to hear' and in subtle ways affirming the values

that had been asserted at Grandridge over a period of more that two decades. Even

the strongest critics of the new directions that were explicit in SotF accepted that the

school had to present itself to its external public, and to government, as entrepreneur-

ial, customer-oriented, businesslike, and outcomes-focussed. Terms like these were

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already becoming internally legitimised and, as time went on, became increasingly

normalised. The process and conclusion of the Charter discussion were therefore a

critical chapter in the continuing process of legitimate naming, in which the 'seeable

and sayable' (Oakes et al ., 1998, p. 270) were first restricted through the tactic of

strategic public compliance, then secondly through the process of public documentation.

Gradually, through ongoing internal review of the newly-stated priorities and

concern about meeting the resultant performance targets, management views were

consolidated around market and business concepts. Meanwhile, the previously

asserted educational and social justice notions were becoming less central, more dis-

sonant and began to lose their sacred status in the prevailing professional discourse.

Of particular note here was the very early, unemotional discussion about whether

the overall slogan for the School Charter (the theme that would pervade the document)

should refer to the school's 'performance orientation' or to its 'social justice values'.

Eventually, after clinical discussion of what would 'sell'in the community and what the

government would tolerate, the majority of staff opted for the 'performance orientation'

theme to best represent what the school was about. This decision, in which Jack was

again instrumental, prompted one teacher to doubt the extent to which some staff at

Grandridge had ever been committed to values of social justice:

It suits them not to have to pretend any more. It very much suits the

school to not have to pretend any more.

This teacher was bitterly disappointed at the reluctance of staff to affirm in the

Charter what she had thought had been, and still should be, the guiding principle of

the school. Her comment implies that the social justice debate was an old debate, and

that there had long been different sides.

In retrospect, it seems that by agreeing to locate themselves 'inside the tent', and by

agreeing to take on board the market and business orientations of SotF policy for

purposes of public legitimacy, members of staff had, at least to some extent, 'bought in'

to aspects of the change and the new norms that it represented even while adopting a

defensive position. This point seems critical in attempting to explain the 'enabling' of

change. Although not welcoming or necessarily accepting the change, teachers were

recognising it as a force that had to be reckoned with. They were meeting it, and making

preparations to deal with it. In keeping with Jack's urging, they were beginning to anti-

cipate and read the changes, and to respond to the new priorities by being 'seen to be

doing what the government wants' – but they were 'doing' nonetheless. So, regardless of

how it started out, the emphasis on business priorities as a form of defensive or rhetori-

cal strategic compliance soon resulted in staff engagement in pursuing the plans and

priorities, particularly as it became perceived as increasingly important that the school

attract students and legitimate itself to its external market and the increasingly important

'third parties' (Offe, 1996) of business, public opinion and government.

School Council and management

As persuasive and trustworthy as Jack appeared in the micropolitical context of

Grandridge Secondary College, it soon became obvious that staff did not want him to

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GLOBALISATION AND RESHAPING TEACHER CULTURE

148

be totally unchallenged. The election of staff representatives to the new School

Council, soon after the School Charter had been drawn up, provided an interesting

window on staff thinking. Three staff members ran for two vacant positions. Two of

these had been outspoken opponents of the Schools of the Future policy at the forum

discussed above. The other was a strong supporter of the principal (soon to be

elevated by Jack to the position of Acting Assistant Principal). The teacher who had

spoken out most strongly against Jack at the staff forum attracted the highest staff

vote. Jack's supporter attracted the lowest vote and was eliminated from the running.

But if staff had expected that there would be vigorous debate at School Council of

policy positions, including Ministry directives, they were soon disappointed. School

Council management powers had been increased substantially under SotF policy, but

policy debate and discussion of government regulations were excluded at meetings in

order to facilitate the 'business' of the Council in time-efficient ways. The view of

most (but by no means all) Council members was that its main role was to provide

good, effective management of the school and to faithfully implement the School

Charter. The Council President, a local professional and parent of a child at the

school, repeatedly put this view during meetings as 'simply common sense'. He

actively discouraged the use of the School Council by teachers as a forum for

contestation of government views or the actions of school management. His habit of

referring to the School Council as 'the Board' is indicative of his no-nonsense orien-

tation. He streamlined procedures by ruling that all correspondence, including

Ministry correspondence, would be tabled at Council but not discussed, and, when he

deemed necessary, by guillotining debate. According to the president: 'Well, what are

these teachers on the council for? They're only pushing a particular barrow and it's

boring to everybody'.

One matter that the 'barrow-pushing' teachers on School Council would have liked

to have pushed further was Jack's use of his enhanced autonomy to create two new

management positions. In particular, the designation of one of them as 'Operations'

was interpreted by some teachers as signalling a shift in what was officially valued

within the school. At Grandridge, the quality of curriculum had long been regarded as

central to the school's strength. This is what Jack and numerous teachers claimed had

previously made Grandridge distinctive. The designation of an Assistant Principal

position as 'operations' was interpreted by many teachers as a message about the type

of teacher contributions that would be recognised and rewarded under the new regime.

Steve, one of the teachers on School Council, claimed:

It's the 'bean counters' largely who have been the ones who have been

promoted into the middle management positions. They have almost no

interest in curriculum at all … because your curriculum output is not

something that measures you as a success [any more]. It's your sort of

ability to be able to do administrative tasks, like for example, working a

computer, being able to do rolls or to be able to do a timetable. And

despite the fact that that's become much easier, because there are pro-

grams and so on, it's given extraordinary credence around here.

LAWRENCE ANGUS

Russell, the new Acting Assistant Principal (Operations), had no illusions about how

staff generally regarded the 'mundane'daily organisational work:

I'm the Assistant Principal Acting Operations. In other words the

timetabler, daily organiser, looking after the things like desks, furniture,

and make sure the rooms are right, and the lights are right so the classes

can run. There's a lot of the staff that say 'what a load of garbage, you

can give that to a cleaner'.

Russell expressed the view that his reward was long overdue, yet there was a sense of

apparently mutual resentment between him and a number of teachers who prided

themselves on their records of curriculum work. Again, it seemed clear that antago-

nism between Russell and some other teachers was due to older contested positions,

in which Russell had been in the minority, as much as the current situation. Russell

categorised his opponents as follows:

They won't say it publicly, but they operate out of the assumption that

they're doing the working class a favour turning up … like some sort of

precious, self opinionated group who really thought we were 'God's gift'.

In a sense, then, Russell and his opponents were continuing an old debate in which,

for Russell, it seemed the wheel had finally turned.

Most teachers we spoke to did not support giving enhanced status to timetabling

and other administrative tasks. These skills, to them, were not, and should not be, at

the core of teacher professional identity. Yet they are skills that are important and

necessary in any school staff. In the assertion of professional cultural capital, new

priorities were being asserted by which to judge the credibility and validity of the dif-

ferent elements of teachers' work. Unlike in the past, the sanctity of 'curriculum

work'in the teacherly repertoire was being challenged by the new centrality of other

aspects of the work. Under Schools of the Future policy, the curriculum was becoming

more centralised, more regulated, and more focussed on specific outcomes.

Jack defended the 'operations' appointment:

That operations stuff is crucial. That involves furniture, lighting … it's

organised in that sense. A person comes in the morning, they get their

extras slips, they know what classes they've got, and there will be twenty-six

chairs and a clean room. You know, all that. Predictable.

A changed view of what constitutes a good teacher seemed to be emerging. One

recently-appointed teacher (who transferred from a closed school) put the following

view without apparent irony:

Well, I mean, there are things like that you are good at, doing the rolls, and

that you do your yard duty meticulously and you don't have to be called,

and that you encourage students to pick up papers, and that your classes

are quiet. In other words the school runs easily without administrators

having to check up on people. That would make you a good teacher.

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One teacher who was respected by old radicals like Steve, and who also seemed

highly valued by Jack, partly because of her timetabling and other administrative

skills, was deeply offended by a change that, to her, crystallised the extent to which

the values that underpinned public schooling had changed. This otherwise moderate

teacher, and a strong supporter of Jack, said:

I don't think I've been more appalled by anything than the idea that

Principals can write off tax for private school fees for their kids … I find

that just totally disgusting!

Rosemary's reference to tax 'write off' is to a salary packaging scheme for principals

that enabled them to arrange for certain expenses (in this case private school fees) to

be deducted from their salaries prior to income tax being applied. The arrangements

were not available to teachers and were seen as contributing to creating a distance

between teachers and managers. But Rosemary's 'disgust' is at the principle of the

scheme assisting State school principals to send their own children to private schools.

It is difficult to convey on paper the incredulity in Rosemary's voice as she expressed

her dismay that Grandridge had become such a 'different' kind of organisation in

which such a thing was possible.

In retrospect, the gap that was opening up between managers and the rest was

hardly surprising. There was a strong rhetoric of managerialism in SotF policy, of

allowing managers to manage and enabling principals to be 'true leaders' of their

schools. Teachers often commented on the contract and salary packaging arrange-

ments, and performance bonuses of members of the principal class. The gap was by

now undermining, at least to some extent, trust between staff and management. The

fact that staff and managers at Grandridge once shared a largely common industrial

and political perspective made any perceived gap between them now seem even

deeper. Indeed, staff attitudes to the administrative team had in some cases become

suspicious or even cynical. I have already noted the apparent depth of feeling over the

creation of additional assistant principal positions. And one view we heard expressed

strongly was that teachers who contributed most to the school's recovery during the

previous lean times had been ignored in the later reforms. But opposition from

the school union branch was by then minimal because, according to one of the leading

unionists, '[Jack's] got staff over a barrel'. The union had few bargaining chips

against the administration because, as Jack was quick to point out:

I get frustrated sometimes. I have fights with them. You know, 'oh, there'll

be flack about this and they might go on strike'. Look, I've got a contract.

If they go on strike and upset the enrolments and things, who loses? Not

me. I might lose emotionally, but you're going to cost them their jobs by

talking down the school and all that sort of stuff.

Any union threat of industrial action could be represented by Jack, and seen by

many in the wider school community, not only as putting teachers'jobs in danger but

also as a direct and disloyal attack against the school. Teacher loyalty was becoming

perceived as loyalty to the individual institution. And the union, even at Grandridge,

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seemed too weak to assert a wider view of loyalty to 'education' and the 'teaching

profession'. As mentioned, in elections for School Council, staff voted for unionists

who had been outspoken opponents of the school's entry to the Schools of the

Future program, and who seemed most likely to stand up to management. But these

representatives' inability to constrain the principal in Council had been shown up

early in the piece by the vote on the acting assistant principal positions. Gradually,

the branch adopted a more conciliatory approach to issues it couldn't win. At the next

union elections, staff decided they wanted a conciliator rather than a firebrand or

progressive educationalist to lead the branch. A sense of distance between managers

and others was explicit in SotF policy, and had also been reinforced by the contentious

Assistant Principal appointment of Russell. Jack had been prepared to go out on a

limb to ensure Russell was rewarded. He says he knew the reaction would be hostile

but that this time he was unmovable:

They didn't like the idea that I could decide … They got upset, and I said

that I didn't consult because it would have been a charade. I wanted it.

'I told you what I wanted – I'm having it!'

This was reportedly the first time in more than 6 years as principal that Jack dug his

heels in and exercised administrative fiat.

Market reputation

In market terms, Jack not only wanted to ensure that the school's reputation was

'good academically' compared with competitor schools, but he was also seeking

points on which Grandridge could be 'unique' or at least 'distinctive'. On occasion

this required a trade-off between educational and market priorities that didn't strictly

coincide. For instance, there was the question of how best to use the discretionary

funds generated through entrepreneurial activity. In answer to a question about

whether he would purchase additional teaching resources, Jack said:

I don't think you'd pay staff. No, I think you'd have lawn tennis courts out

here rather than asphalt ones. Or more grass, you know. But, every

school's got teachers.

'More grass' could make Grandridge distinctive in a way that having more teach-

ers could not. No one we spoke to at Grandridge questioned the underlying

assumption that the school needed to compete effectively for its share of

enrolments. Indeed, it was interesting to note that, despite the early arguments (dis-

cussed above) over whether the 'overarching slogan' for the School Charter would

be 'social justice values' or 'a performance orientation', no one who was inter-

viewed approached the question of admissions from a social justice perspective.

Instead, even the critics seemed to take on board the managerial, competitive logic.

Some, like the radical unionist, Steve, now criticised the management for not

competing effectively enough. He accused management of lack of marketing imag-

ination, and came up with his own proposal for how the school could be marketed

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GLOBALISATION AND RESHAPING TEACHER CULTURE

152 LAWRENCE ANGUS

more effectively:

Look, what's our comparative advantage over other schools? What is the

comparative advantage here? The obvious thing to a parent who really

doesn't know the curriculum (everyone's got the widest curriculum in

Victoria, blah, blah, blah, blah) is the grounds here. And what's happen-

ing is we're getting all that area developed out here, and I said, 'What

you do is get a glossy three minute video. And you use that as part of the

transition program'.

In this comment there is a strong echo of Jack's observation about 'green grass' and the

fact that 'every school's got teachers'. As teacher critics began to adopt the previously

somewhat foreign language of managerialism, they were contributing to the shifting

of the relative status of professional values.

The perceived centrality of 'bean counters'now, vis a vis the previous professional

centrality of 'curriculum people', represented a powerful shift in professional capital

and personal identities of many teachers even though the critical mass of teachers

may not have agreed with the shift of legitimacy. This is particularly the case since

teachers at Grandridge, almost without exception, were there because they had

fought to get positions at the school because its staff had long been regarded as being

at the cutting edge of educational thinking and professionalism. Many of these teachers

had come to regard themselves as being among the designers of contemporary

education in Victoria. They were people who could claim to have made a difference

in the field. But the agenda asserted by the Kennett government and SotF policy had

pulled the rug from under them. They were precisely the kind of educational activists

that the government despised for their so-called 'social engineering'. There were

many teachers on staff who had been at the forefront of curriculum innovation for a

long time, and whose reputations as good practitioners extended outside the school.

Some of these teachers, previously recognised as educational leaders, were now

complaining that they felt mistrusted and undervalued.

DISCUSSION

Many of the pressures that were reshaping conceptions of teacher professionalism at

Grandridge Secondary College during the1990s seem to have resulted in professional

as well as industrial disempowerment of teachers, and to have had ambiguous results.

In the main, despite skepticism and disappointments about developments, many staff

maintained their traditions of educational enthusiasm and still liked to see them-

selves as policy critics. Part of Jack's rationale for entering the Schools of the Future

pilot program was the recognition that these were indeed tough educational times in

which Grandridge could use its reputation in order to exert an active influence on the

ongoing emergence and reinterpretation of policy. This would be in keeping with the

tradition of Grandridge and its staff being found at the forefront of professional

debates. Teachers had generally interpreted the policy changes in the 1990s negatively.

Many were resistant or defensive, yet they were complicit in contributing to changes

in organisational and professional practice and identities.

Part of being a member of a profession is being able to assert what Bourdieu might

call its professional culture or, more precisely in his terms, to define the professional

field in terms of its cultural and symbolic capital. Members of the teaching profes-

sional field, for example, define, assert and defend the body of norms and knowledge

that give the profession its internal and external legitimacy. Therefore, although

professional knowledge and norms may be contested from different positions within

the profession, the profession's legitimacy rests largely on its sense of its own

distinctiveness. Thus, although contested, members are likely to try to keep asserting

the status of their broad professional body of knowledge and, if they can't, then the

nature and status of the profession becomes more problematic as 'the cultural capital

of the [professional] field is lost' (Oakes et al ., 1998, p. 263). Teachers at Grandridge

would not seem to be at that point yet. But the professional field has certainly been

challenged and shaped in subtle ways. What were previously the main forums for

discussion, and often contestation, of educational issues and changes, School Council

and Union meetings, were now tame arenas. The core of what was presumed to make

'a good teacher' had been challenged by new parity being given to 'beancounter'

skills. The importance of market competition, including the need to attract 'good'

students to the school, had been recognised as a pragmatic imperative. This last was

a strong illustration of the actualisation of the 'performance orientation', which,

rather than the concept of 'social justice values', had been agreed to as the theme for

the School Charter, initially for pragmatic and defensive reasons. The cultural capital

of the professional field was being problematised.

The key point here is that the constituents of what had been regarded at Grandridge

as comprising 'a good teacher' were being revalued. The previously asserted profes-

sional capital, in Bourdieusian terms, was being contested and reconstructed. As

Oakes et al . (1998, p. 273) put it:

redefining the [professional] field's dominant capital may not directly

affect actors' intrinsic properties [e.g. a teacher's knowledge about and

commitment to inclusive curriculum] but it does affect their relational

properties (their position), because it affects their overall capital, and

therefore their standing in the field. This, in turn, will have implications

for an individual's sense of positional identity.

Importantly, internal critics who had most strongly asserted previous professional

values and discourse were also adopting the language of market, managerialism and

other neo-liberal themes of Schools of the Future. Most importantly, the effects on

them, as well as on less committed colleagues and on Jack, were experienced not

only as the constraints of a coercive policy regime, but also as the institutional buying

into the policy rhetoric, which defined what was important to talk about. For instance,

all sides agreed that there was cultural kudos to be had by the school appearing to be

entrepreneurial. Entrepreneurialism and business management, in the new era, endowed

some sense of legitimacy on managers and on the school in the wider community.

The policy emphasis of accountability in direct, accounting terms, like budget

reports, shortfalls in achievement of performance targets, and comparative scores in

State-wide testing and public examinations, helped make the school directly answerable

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GLOBALISATION AND RESHAPING TEACHER CULTURE

154

to an external audience (particularly the informed and 'concerned' citizens who

responded positively to the rhetoric of educational crisis, and those aspirational citizens

who needed reassurance that the school's academic performance was first rate).

Being answerable to your professional peers, your fellow educators, hardly mattered

now. Perhaps the most startling illustration of this point was the fact that it was not

difficult, in a premier educational institution like Grandridge Secondary College, to

decide whether beautifying the already lush grounds or purchasing additional educa-

tional resources was more important: there was agreement that more 'green grass'

would make the school distinctive and attract students.

Some staff (but by no means all, as I indicated above) who identified strongly with

the formerly asserted professional culture, and who saw themselves as 'curriculum'

people, 'felt uncomfortable and tended to become less involved as they no longer

understood the rules of the game' (Oakes et al ., 1998, p. 280). Some others 'not only

embraced the new field but helped give it shape' (Oakes et al ., 1998, p. 280). Some

of these, like Russell, who was promoted to Assistant Principal, were clearly winners

in the new 'game'. Through examining how contextualised micropolitical processes

began to shape the new 'game', as I have attempted to do here, we might begin to

understand how organisation and professional identity get shaped, and we may grasp

a sense of the cultural and political mechanisms 'that can be specified and traced'

(Dale, 2000) rather than simply explained by globalisation forces. Nonetheless, as I

have emphasised, the everyday social politics that I have described above are connected

to, but not determined by, the macro-politics of globalisation, the weakening of the

nation-state, the fragmentation of civil society, the assertion of alternative social,

political and educational norms, the reduction of education to a site of economic plan-

ning, the control of schools and teachers, and the like. The reconstruction of education

as a social institution fits neatly into the neo-liberal cultural agenda, but the point I

most want to make is that we are all complicit in such reconstruction in particular

sites. Teachers and trainee teachers, and education academics, need to appreciate this.

NOTE

The data collection was conducted by the author and Lynton Brown (see Angus & Brown, 1997), whose

contribution also to the thinking represented in this paper is gratefully acknowledged. This work was

funded by a grant from the Australian Research Council.

REFERENCES

Angus, L. (1993) The sociology of school effectiveness. British Journal of Sociology of Education , vol. 14,

pp. 333–345.

Angus, L. and Brown, L. (1997) Becoming a School of the Future: The Micro-politics of Policy

Implementation. Melbourne: Apress.

Bacchi, C. (2000) Policy as Discourse: What Does it Mean? Where Does it Get Us? Discourse , vol. 21,

pp. 45–57.

Beck, J. (1999) Makeover or Takeover? The Strange Death of Educational Autonomy in Neo-liberal

England. British Journal of Sociology of Education , vol. 20, pp. 223–238.

LAWRENCE ANGUS

Dale, R. (1999) Specifying Global Effects on National Policy: A Focus on the Mechanisms. Journal of

Education Policy, vol. 14, pp. 1–14.

Dale, R. (2000) Globalisation and Education: Demonstrating a 'Common World Educational Culture' or

locating a 'Globally Structured Education Agenda'? Educational Theory , vol. 50, pp. 427–448.

Department of School Education (DSE) (1993) Schools of the Future Information Kit. Melbourne:

Ministry of Education.

Gewirtz, S. and Ball, S. J. (2000) From 'Welfarism' to' New Managerialism': Shifting Discourses of

School Headship in the Education Marketplace. Discourse , vol. 21, pp. 253–268.

Lawn, M. (2001) Borderless Education: Imagining a European Education Space in a Time of Brands and

Networks. Discourse , vol. 22, pp. 173–184.

Marginson, S. (1997) Markets in Education. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

Morley, L. and Rassool, N. (2000) School Effectiveness: New Managerialsim, Quality and the

Japanization of Education. Journal of Education Policy, vol. 15, pp. 169–183.

Oakes, L., Townley, B. and Cooper, D. J. (1998) Busines Planning as Pedagogy: Language and Control in

a Changing Educational Field. Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 48, pp. 257–292.

Offe, C. (1996) Designing Institutions in East European Transitions, in Robert E. Goodin (ed). Theory of

Institutional Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–226.

Stryker, R. (1998) Globalization and the Welfare State. International Journal of Sociology and Social

Policy, vol. 18, pp. 1–49.

Thomson, P. (2001) How Principals Lose 'Face': A Disciplinary Tale of Educational Administration and

Modern Managerialism. Discourse, vol. 22, pp. 5–22.

Wilding, P. (1997) Globalization, regionalism and social policy, Social policy and administration, vol. 31, 4,

pp. 410–428.

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INTRODUCTION

"Standard" is defined as a level of quality and is often applied with the concept of

"criterion". Although it is associated with the concept of "quality", the term needs to

be considered independently since it has been given much attention in the last

decade. Standards might have been described in today's rhetoric as high, maybe even

as world class, but are rather narrow in scope of the subject areas covered (Linn,

1999). The standard of an enterprise is the measure or criterion (or set of criteria)

against which the enterprise is to be judged. It is the performance of the enterprise

against the standard in question that determines whether the enterprise is of high

quality or not. In higher education, it could be observed that comparable institutions

are being assessed against the same standards and being found to be of differing quality,

their performances varying when judged against the standards in question. The dis-

tinction between standards and quality can be explained as outcomes and processes.

The outcomes may not come up to the expected standard, or may just comply with an

acceptable standard, but the processes should remain at the highest quality (Barnett,

1992). Day (2004) made some observations on the government standards agenda,

such as:

●measurable standards account for limited amount of teaching, learning and

achievement,

●without committed teachers of the highest quality, standards are unlikely to be

raised and the challenges presented by changes in society will not be realized.

There are variations between quality management applications in different countries.

It is almost impossible to talk about having the same standards at all Higher

Education Institutions. Elmuti, Kathawala and Manippallil (1996) reported that since

many higher education institutions were involved in total quality management initia-

tives, it is likely that many more will be engaged. House (1994) claimed that, "cur-

rent policies in the USA, aimed at higher education productivity are badly mistaken

in the effects that policy mak ers hope to achieve, as happened so often in the past. In

short, these policies may lead to less rather than more productivity in higher education".

Although each university has its own definition and application of standards, there are

points on which they all agree. An example of this is given below:

First university foundation standards in general are;

●size

●subject provision

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11. ACADEMICS' PERCEPTIONS OF PRIVATE

UNIVERSITY ESTABLISHMENT STANDARDS

AND TEACHING QUALITY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 157–176.

158

●history and statement of purpose

●institutional mission

Second,

●program foundation

●staff development

●academic preparation

●credibility

●foundation and preparation of the self study teams

●conduction of the self study

●identification and summary of the evidence

●identifying the discrepancies

●determining the appropriate corrective action

●recommending action for program enhancement

●preparation of an action plan (www.cas.edu)

(The Council for the Advancement of

standards in Higher Education)

According to the Quality Assurance Agency key features in teaching, learning and

assessment in higher education are:

●The teaching, learning and assessment strategy (aims, links to learning

outcomes)

●Teaching (staff contribution, professional activity/research, materials,

resources, student participation, activities)

●Learning (student workload, guidance, resources)

●Assessment (clarity, promoting learning, measuring, rigour,

moderation / external examining)

(Drew, 2001)

Another study reported Student Learning Standards as follows:

●curriculum design, content, organization

●teaching, learning and assessment

●student progression and achievement

●student support and guidance

●learning resources

●quality management and enhancement

(http://www.qaa.ac.uk).

University today is defined as the institution, which produces, transfers and applies

knowledge for the economic, social, cultural, scientific and technological development

of the society through education and produces research and social services according

to international standards. These standards have been inevitably associated with

finance in many areas. British retrenchment has already resulted in reduced funding,

transformed governance, and loss of faculty tenure and flight of academics to other

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

countries. The British government accepted the fact that only a few countries would be

competitive internationally (House, 1994). While carrying out their function, universi-

ties are supported by the government in many countries because of the advantages they

have provided. This support could be given in two ways. The government can either

establish the university itself or provide the opportunity for a private university to be

established.

The real issue for higher education is economic: Higher education is

extremely expensive. Can the society afford it? Does the society want to,

even if it can? In a society with a massive national debt and declining

economic prospects, the answer seems to be that society does not want

something this expensive. Productivity can be improved either by producing

more or cutting costs. Fundamentally, the government and public want to

reduce costs.

(House, 1994).

Therefore, private universities emerged. Although private universities are seen by some

to be totally private, they are non-profit institutions. They are called foundation univer-

sities in Turkey (Turkish Ministry of Education, 2000). Private universities are deemed

to be private institutions, which aim at earning profit oriented through education.

However, according to Turkish Law, Article 130, private universities are non-profit

institutions, which are dependent on the higher education principles and legislations of

the country except for administrative and financial matters. The common misunder-

standing is that people overlook the fact that private universities are also government

institutions. A private university made the following explanation on its web page:

The term private university is wrong. The basis of private universities is

law. They are under the control of government. Private universities are

institutions that use people's money and assets for others, with the purpose

of help.

(Karakutuk, 2001).

Education, and in particular higher education, is also being driven towards commercial

competition imposed by economic forces. According to Feeman, this competition is

the result of the development of global education markets on the one hand, and the

reduction of governmental funds that force public organizations to seek other finan-

cial sources on the other (Owlia and Aspinwall, 1996). Similarly, Barnett (2000)

notes that there is no universal value and the university just makes its own values in

the world. This stance leads directly to the marketized university; the university's val-

ues are those that are sustained by the markets in which it can find a living.

Private university foundation standards and their teaching quality have been under

debate for the last few years in Turkey. Finance is accepted as being one of the main

factors determining the quality of "research and teaching" in higher education insti-

tutions. Academic salaries, laboratory, library, computer facilities and the level of research

funding for each academic or student at universities serve as the main determinants

of quality, which directly or indirectly enhance the "teaching quality". Collecting and

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considering student expectations and preferences of teaching style could be an effec-

tive means of giving students a voice in course delivery and help focus course team

discussion on teaching, learning and assessment (Sander et al., 2000). Standard

based reform is needed in relation to the factors above and those listed below:

●It is critical for higher education to become more involved in the

dialogue regarding standards-based reforms. It must be recognized

that more colleges are not very selective, many of them struggling to

attract enough students.

●Colleges and universities that are highly selective will find little help in

making admission decisions form the results of performance standards

that essentially all students are expected to meet or from standards that

place students into one of a small number of categories such as the

proficient and advanced levels of performance.

●The close coupling between high school performance and college

opportunities also has potential down siders as well as potential

benefits.

●Although the goal of having the same high standards for all children

is appealing, it is not clear that a single set of standards is appropriate

for all students at the end of the school.

●The adoption of performance standards requirement could exacerbate

differences between, those who come from privileged backgrounds and

those who come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Schwartz (1993)

recognized this potential dilemma and suggested that an implication

of the school reform agenda for higher education is that as standards

are raised, colleges and universities will need to find new ways to

work with schools and other community institutions to ensure that

large numbers of students are not left behind.

(Linn, 1999).

The debate about quality in teaching and learning is an ongoing one, but it is clear

that no university can avoid reviewing its mechanisms for ensuring competence (or

even excellence) in teaching and learning, particularly at the point of delivery

(McIlveen et al., 1997 cited from Pennington and O'Neil, 1994). It is at least plausible

to argue that in order to warrant the title "institution of higher education", there are

certain activities - connected with learning, understanding and human development -

which an institution necessarily should be promoting and that those activities should

be conducted with regard to minimum standards (Barnett, 1992). Much of the current

literature diverts attention away from institutions' resources, culture, history, networks

and goals because "quality" is defined as a matter of distinction based on departmental

performance rather than affiliation. Keith's (1999) study revealed that departmental rat-

ings are primarily tied to institutional reputations. Similarly, Lock et al., demonstrated

that teaching provision was more likely to be judged "excellent" if:

●clear links were visible between institutional aims and curricular content

●at least one third of individual classes showed good preparation.

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

However, Higher Education Institutions sometimes fail to realize this due to lack of

financial resources, which serve as one of the main problems for them. By allocating

resources via students, foundations and the private sector, private universities take a

portion of the burden from the government, which also brings about the issue of

quality and standards in higher education institutions. The growing number of private

universities in the last 5 years is an indicator of the government's prior policy in

higher education. It is primarily due to this reason that substantial help is given for

the foundation of private universities, which also has been much under discussion in

the academic world. Some people believe that founding private universities creates

inequality among students. Since it is unfeasible for the government to provide

education in public universities for all, foundation of private universities seems

necessary. In many countries, university education is provided by individuals. In the

United States National Higher Education Report, individual responsibility for helping

the government on this issue is expressed by:

Everyone must shoulder his or her own share of the importance of the sit-

uation described herein. If leaders, policy makers and the general public

satisfy themselves by blaming others, the situation will not change. In

order to maintain access to higher education at a reasonable price, every-

one will have to do more, make more sacrifices and work harder.

(Report on the National Costs of Higher Education, 1998).

As mentioned in the report, access to Higher Education is everyone's individual right.

Yet this right could be violated unless high quality teaching standards are maintained.

The issue of quality teaching brings forth the question of standards. The question of

keeping the same standards in teaching at all the Higher Education Institutions center

is a key problem for higher education.

Teaching quality is not only dependent on the high quality of an academic but also

on the facilities of an institution. Basic factors in the quality of research and teaching

in higher education institutions are the academic salary, laboratory, library, computer

facilities and the amount of research funds for each student. This list could be

extended. There is a correlation between maintaining the quality at universities and

offering these through modern techniques. Effective teaching at universities is a

complex, intellectually demanding and socially challenging task. Second, effective

teaching consists of a set of skills that can be acquired, improved and extended

(Brown and Atkins, 1991). On a different perspective, the situation is more difficult

in Turkey when finance is taken into consideration. It was also emphasized in the

national report that financial constraints serve as the main barriers for higher educa-

tional institutions. Research, teaching and learning strategies cannot be fully imple-

mented when physical problems exist (Turkish Ministry of Education, 1991).

Many public universities feel the need for a substantial increase in financial aid for

public universities. Finance and teaching quality can be regarded as inseparable

counterparts.

Quality cannot be derived from a universal model, quality cannot emerge from theory

and abstraction, and quality is the result of a series of actions responding to precise

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ACADEMICS' PERCEPTIONS AND TEACHING QUALITY

162

social needs in a very particular moment. Real quality is here and now (Dias, 1994).

This can be directly applied to the Turkish higher education system. It is not reason-

able to expect private universities to reach international standards in a short time.

What they must do is to try to explore ways, which will ensure them moving towards

perfection by supporting their academics, students and employees.

In the 1970s concern over standards was limited to teaching; as research could be

appraised by the traditional criterion of publication. This has been dramatically

changed after the 1980s with the "accountability" movement, which began in 1979.

This has been emphasized in the Leverhulme Report (1983) with these words:

"Prime responsibility for standards must rest with the higher education community.

Nevertheless, there is a legitimate external interest, and the higher education

community benefits when its quality is clearly visible". In the Jarratt Report on

"Efficiency Studies in Universities" (1985) the responsibility of staff training was

mainly put on the universities shoulders:

●Recognition of the contribution made by individuals,

●Assistance for individuals to develop their full potential as early as

possible,

●Assistance for the university to make the most effective use of its aca-

demic staff.

(Moodie, 1988)

Fundamentally, teacher commitment has been found to be critical predictor of teachers'

work performance, absenteeism, retention, burn out and turn over, as well as having

an important impact on students' motivation, achievement, attitudes towards learning

and attendance (Day, 2004).

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY, METHOD AND SAMPLE GROUP

The purpose of this study was to determine academics' perceptions of private

university foundation standards (such as physical facilities related to instruction and

research, professional development opportunities for academics, learning opportuni-

ties for students and budget allocation to research and teaching related activities). In

order to collect data for the research, by making use of the literature and research

related to the subject, questions were prepared so as to scrutinize academics'

perceptions towards teaching quality at private universities, and a series of unstruc-

tured interviews were undertaken with 10 academics ranging from professors to

assistant professors. After considering their comments about the draft, some changes

were made to give the questionnaire its final form. The pilot study enabled us to

shape the initial draft of the scope of activity constituted by the public and private

universities. Of the 200 questionnaires administered, 112 responses were completed

and returned. This represents a response rate of 75%. 112 academics who work for

those universities constitute the sample group. It is assumed that academics answer-

ing the questionnaire were objective and the items in the questionnaire were appro-

priate to test the perceptions of the academics. The scope of this research is limited

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

to one public and two private universities in Istanbul and the aim is to provide a pic-

ture of the sample group, not to determine characteristics of the private universities

and consequently the study is limited to the knowledge of the academics on private

universities.

DATA ANALYSIS

The data derived from the questionnaires were analyzed by using SPSS (Package

Programme for Social Sciences Windows Release 10.0). In the analysis of the statistics,

Percentage (%) and Frequency (F) calculations were made and Kruskal Wallis, T Test,

One Way Anova Analysis and Chi Square were used to determine the meaningful

differences.

FINDINGS

A. Demographic findings

Title: out of 112 academics, 24% of academics were professors, 14% associate

professors, 19% assistant professors, 6% lecturers with PhD, 15% lecturers, and 22 %

research assistants.

Faculty: 18% of the respondents were from the Faculty of Engineering, 29% from

Faculty of Science and Literature, 26% from Faculty of Educational Sciences, 20%

from Faculty of Business Administration, 7% from Faculty of Foreign Languages.

Institution: 55% of the academics work at public universities whereas 45% work at

private universities.

Experience: 26 academics in the sample have 1–5 years; 24 have between 6–10 years;

28 have between 11–20 years; 20 have 21 or more years of experience.

B. Research and instructional facilities

In this section it should be noted that findings related to research and instructional

facilities are directly proportional to the budget allocated, which consequently affects

the teaching quality and the qualifications of an academic.

More than half of the respondents agreed that "research and teaching" are highly

regarded by private universities. Mann Whitney U tests conducted between private

and public university academics revealed significance. Academics who work at

private universities believe that teaching quality is given priority at private universities

(Public: Mean rank: 49.32; private mean rank: 65.40; p: 0.007).

48% of the respondents indicated that laboratories and research centers at private

universities are equipped with modern technology, which is another positive indicator

for teaching quality. 27% of the academics regarded the budget allocated for the

development of libraries as satisfactory.

70% of academics think that class sizes at private universities are at the ideal size.

66% of academics believe that student-academic ratio is proportional at private

universities. 60% of the academics expressed their opinion that, social and economic

opportunities provided at private universities enable students to progress.

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ACADEMICS' PERCEPTIONS AND TEACHING QUALITY

164

B.1. Private universities cooperation with industrial institutions Teaching quality

is closely related with the cooperation between universities and industrial institu-

tions, which provide students with during and after graduation in-service opportuni-

ties along with professional development opportunities for the academics. When

asked to what extent academics found private universities cooperation with industrial

institutions satisfactory, it was found that there is an acknowledgeable difference

between the academics'views depending on the university they work for. For private

the mean score was 3.54 on a 5 point scale and for public it was 3.06 (F  0.486;

t 2.434; p  0.01) . Being in close contact enables academics to acquire new

skills by means of practice as well as providing funds that would ultimately increase

the academic quality standards for research.

B.2. Academics' familiarity with the teaching quality at private universities As a

result of Chi Square Test, there was a significant difference between academics

having administrative duties and being familiar with the teaching quality at private

universities. More than half of the respondents who had administrative duties (69%)

indicated that they knew the value of quality teaching, compared with 42% of

academics who did not have administrative duties. The reason for this might be that

they have to follow all the laws and regulations related to higher education. During

the interviews conducted almost all the professors stated that they have taken active

roles at the foundation stage of private universities and they are aware of the importance

of teaching quality at private universities. They expressed their concerns about the

maintenance of professional development standards due to the increase in the number

of private institutions in recent years.

C. Research and instructional applications

In this section, academics' views on the instructional applications, which are

influential on teaching quality at private universities, were examined.

C.1. Maintenance of teaching quality standards Academics were asked whether

private universities maintain the standards they have promised at the foundation

stage. 45% of the academics think that the universities are fulfilling the high quality

research and teaching principles they set during the foundation process. Mann

Whitney U tests done related to he faculty variable showed that views of academics

from the faculty of education differed from the academics from the departments of busi-

ness administration, engineering and science and literature. Academics from the faculty

of engineering have a more positive view about the maintenance of the objectives

put forward during the foundation process, while academics from the faculty of

education had a comparatively negative attitude.

C.2. Total quality applications at private universities 33% of the academics in the

study believe that Total Quality Management is conducted satisfactorily at private uni-

versities. The data showed that academics' views on whether Total Quality

Management principles are applied satisfactorily in teaching related activities differed

according to the years of experience the academic had. Unlike academics with 11–20

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

years and also 21 and above years of experience, academics with 1–5 years of experi-

ence find total quality applications in teaching at private universities unsatisfactory.

D. Evaluation of quality processes at private universities

Evaluation of quality processes regarding research and teaching related practices

reflect the portfolio of an institution in terms of professional development. Nearly

half of the academics (43%) found these practices satisfactory. A significant

difference was found between the views of the academics on the evaluation of private

universities based on the rank they held (Professors: Mean rank: 31.48; Research

Assistants: Mean rank: 2112; U: 203.00; P: 0.007). Professors believed that evalua-

tion of teaching quality at private universities was satisfactory, more so than research

assistants. Their academic titles as well as their being better acquainted with the laws

and regulations of the university may be reasons for professors finding teaching qual-

ity as satisfactory.

Professional development opportunities for academics at public and private

universities aims to improve research and teaching practices, and have a "lego

effect". Significant differences considering support for professional development of

academics was based on the university variable (Public: Mean rank: 64.39; Private:

mean rank: 46.72; U: 1061.000; p: 0.003). Academics who work for public universities

believed that they cannot teach as effectively as they want since they cannot be

relieved from the burden of supporting the financial development of their university.

Another finding confirming this result found that almost all academics who work at

public universities stated that by starting evening courses, public universities create

additional income resources for them and this leads to an increase in the teaching

hours and the proportional decrease in their time and motivation to do research. Since

teaching quality is related to doing research and reflecting it in lectures, this finding

reveals the constraints which affect teaching quality negatively.

E. Tempting opportunities provided to academics

at private universities

In relation to the item asking whether tempting opportunities are provided to the

academics at private universities significance was related to title (Professors: mean

rank: 30.91; Research Assistants: Mean rank: 21.74; U: 218.500; P: 0.021). Professors

provided positive opinions about private universities that can be explained in terms of

salary and title; the higher their rank, the more salary they get. In order to encourage

qualified academics into their institutions, private universities provide many oppor-

tunities for academics who are at the top of their careers. On the other hand, the same

opportunities are not available to the academics, who are at the beginning of their

careers. Yet, according to the interviews conducted with the research assistants,

despite getting the same amount of money at either public or private universities, they

are given better opportunities to do research at private universities. Despite the irre-

sistible salaries and administrative duties, some professors expressed their uneasiness

about changing their institutions during the interviews. The mean-score (3.74) for this

statement is a mirror which highlights some of the academics' dilemmas. Only 28.5% of

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166

the respondents stated that they had professional development opportunities at their

institutions.

F. Academic structuring at private universities

Another finding that demonstrates the effect of finances on teaching quality is

related to academic structuring. 60% of the respondents stated that academic and

administrative structuring are considered to be the main priorities of the private uni-

versities during the foundation process. 63% of the respondents agreed that academics

are given professional opportunities at private universities. This might be the reason

why some academics prefer to continue their careers at private universities. It could

be inferred that there is a correlation between having more opportunities for professional

development and improving teaching. Mann Whitney Tests done related to university

variable confirms this finding as well (public university: Mean rank: 64.39; private:

mean rank: 46.72; U: 1061.00; p: 0.003). Academics who work at public universities

believe that they cannot achieve the desired development needed to meet professional

requirements when compared with the academics who work at private universities.

During the interviews conducted, academics stated that they could only continue

with their professional development activities if completely depending on their own

efforts.

G. Private universities and the issue of inequality

All of the questions asked in the study formed a natural basis for the major question

on whether private universities created inequality among students and academics.

59% of respondents expressed their commitment towards the foundation of private

universities. Academics, who work at public universities believed that the foundation

of private universities created inequality whereas academics at private universities

did not (Public university: mean rank: 66.36; private university: mean rank: 44.27; U:

938.500; p: 0.000). Since academics in private universities have the opportunity to

observe the functioning of their institutions, since they know the number of scholar-

ship students they take and how they take advantage of students' school fees by

having high salaries, they may not be in the best position to express their feelings.

DISCUSSION

This study suggests that there are three main areas which together comprise the

context of learning and teaching opportunities, that is, accumulating enough profes-

sional development opportunities in order to direct it towards the existing students,

on campus teaching and learning facilities and being able to allocate sufficient

budget to upgrade quality standards. These should not be seen as discrete items, but

as inter-connected. The most significant aspect of this study is that these three areas

impinge on each other and are fed by financial support. Although academics at

private universities believe that laboratories and research centers at private universities

are equipped with government funded modern technology, they are not fully satisfied

with the facilities that are provided for the public universities.

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

Despite the fact that private universities seem to benefit from the government's

budget a great deal more and duly offer high quality courses, it would be misleading

to assume it applies to all private universities. This study also reveals academic concerns

about the quality standards at private universities and analyzes the extent to which the

infrastructure and the facilities at private universities have established high quality

teaching by highly qualified academics. A study reporting the essential elements in

learning noted that "if we agree that 'adequate infrastructure' is necessary for quality

education, then we must inevitably evaluate how that infrastructure serves the

students, i.e. how many books are in a library building and how the institution

provides students access to such resources and to what extent those resources are

relevant to learning experience, again it may be that students play a role in determining

quality in this domain" (Pond, 2002). Yet, having all the teaching related facilities

does not necessarily guarantee high quality teaching and high quality academics.

One other constraint related to departments is the limitation regarding professional

development opportunities promised during the foundation process. Academics from

the faculty of engineering have a more positive view about the maintenance of the

objectives whereas faculty of education academics held a more pessimistic attitude.

This can be seen as a reflection of departmental quality policy and discrimination of

equal career opportunities. Popular departments are perceived to be given more

opportunities to academics which again triggers the chain reaction implication on the

components of department, enrollments, research, teaching, professional development

opportunities and such.

Another difference comes across in the professional development opportunities

granted to private universities that are a great deal more than the public universities

despite the lack of guarantee it delivers on the high quality academic aspect.

Academics at public universities survive to do research and share it with their

counterparts in spite of limited financial conditions. Statistics regarding journal pub-

lication numbers obtained from, Social Science Citation and Arts & Humanities

indexes for 1998 and 1999 showed that of the four universities only one private

university ranked at the top of the list while the rest were public. This result and similar

ones in the following years have proved that such generalizations about private

universities should be treated more cautiously in future speculations. While many

universities accept and apply "quality" to research and teaching related facilities and

put the emphasis on the places where knowledge is produced and disseminated via

academics and the administrative staff, there are still some universities, which use

"quality" as a means to attract more students to be enrolled through the effective use

of the media. Such institutions function as free enterprises and unfortunately perceive

students as their clients. Another study conducted on senior academics in England

revealed that senior managers in older universities expressed far greater concern than

those in modern universities about increased student numbers leading to a lowering

of standards (Lomas and Tomlinson, 2000).

Although more students get the chance to study with the foundation of new private

universities, these universities can only accommodate a limited number of students

from high-income families. It is argued that such attitude towards the enrollment of

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168

this particular group of students creates injustice in terms of allocation of government

funds. Nevertheless, it is also thought that it takes a long time for a private university

to be able to compete with the public universities in terms of being educationally and

financially compatible with them. As far as academics, there is an assumption that

more financial opportunities are provided which results in bringing about greater

self-esteem and more sufficient career opportunities. Since a heavy teaching load is

mostly felt as a primary burden at great number of private institutions, academics

claim that they are not able to allocate ample time to their research and development.

There seems to be a conflict between universities' research encouragement policies

and their implementation. Research related to performance indicators showed that

although research tends to be a major priority for many university academics as

a vehicle of career advancement, the application of performance indicators had

reinforced the "research over teaching" mentality or even made it worse. More time

devoted to research would mean less time left for teaching (Taylor, 2001).

Academics not being involved in decision-making processes at private universities

is considered to be another factor which hinders professional development. This is

justified by a study (Bakioglu and Hacıfazlıoglu, 2001) that showed a small amount

of academic participation in the decision making process. In comparison, public

universities seem to be more democratic, which is due to the permanent staff policy

in public universities. However, this policy may bring undesirable outcomes;

for example, contracts are renewed every three years without considering academics'

professional studies, which results in lack of concern about losing their jobs. By

doing research or/and by developing their lectures. Academics who work in private

university pay more attention to their colleagues and their students' views about their

lectures in comparison with academics who work in public universities. (F  1.957;

t 2.606; P  0.05). From this perspective, students serve as a mentor for an aca-

demic with the mutual exchange of experiences and constitute the main pillars for an

academic to improve one's teaching and supervising skills. A successful faculty eval-

uation can have many benefits. One of the main advantages is that it can provide the

research base for in-service and professional development programs for academics

(Macpherson et al ., 2000).

As in the case of permanent staff policy, public institutions face a lot of difficulties.

High number of students in classrooms, which affect the performance of academics, is

one of the most important problems in public universities. Consequently, lecturers

cannot teach effectively in large classes or have enough office hours and as a result the

mentoring role fades away. In private universities, however, the number of students in

each class is maximum 25; therefore lecturers are not confronted with such problems.

Ample monetary related devices in private universities are considered to be a great

advantage for academics, administrative staff and the students which lead to a better and

more productive educational setting. An academic who is forced to teach in a large class

becomes a "robot" feeding their own knowledge to the students without being aware of

such artificial transformation of information, which could be quite de-motivating and it

has a negative effect, not only on the students, but the academics as well. It may be for

this reason that some academics at public institutions see the foundation of private

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

universities as a process which creates inequality between students. The issue of allocat-

ing students in classes was also reflected in another study. Very large classes were

disliked since it was harder to ask questions, and fully concentrate on the matter under

discussion, due to students chatting and disturbing others (Drew, 2001). Another study

(Bakioglu and Hacıfazlıoglu, 2002) conducted on teacher candidates and academics

from the Faculty of Education revealed a number of constraints. Mean scores based on

a five point Likert Scale type showed that both academics and students saw that large

classes, heavy teaching loads and limited economic opportunities were perceived to

be the main constraints experienced by the academics, which could be an obstacle to

appropriate professional development.

Finance was determined to be one of the main factors which cause the failure of

quality processes. Many countries, both developed and developing, are concerned

about the scale of public expenditure and are questioning the priority given to higher

education. In Asian countries, education is competing for limited funds beacuse very

heavy expenditure is needed for essential infrastructure and development. There is

pressure to reduce the funds going to higher education to expand primary education

and to give greater priority to adult literacy programs (Ayarza, 1994 cited from

Gannicott and Trosby, 1990 Meek, 1992). It was reflected in this study that shortage

of funds hampers academics desire to do research. This finding appears to be in

correlation with another study on academic levels of satisfaction regarding research,

which indicated that nearly a quarter of academics perceived themselves to be pro-

ductive in maintaining academic studies (Bakioglu and Hacıfazlıoglu, 2001).

Academic salary was determined to be another factor which hinders teaching quality

in this study, which is one crucial aspect of teaching's attractiveness (OECD, 1992).

This was also confirmed in another study conducted in Sri Lanka. The findings

revealed that universities were faced with an acute shortage of funds and that exist-

ing financial systems and procedures were control oriented rather than promoting

efficiency and quality enhancement (Chandrasiri, 2003).

Although finance was mainly mentioned in relation to high quality teaching in this

study, further studies are needed to examine the teaching quality and professional

development opportunities provided at private universities. This study is limited to

the academics' views regarding the opportunities provided at private universities in

terms of professional development from the basis of teaching and research opportu-

nities. Since there are many new universities, faculties, higher education institutions

and departments in Turkey and since the number of these will inevitably grow in the

near future, these institutions should be evaluated in terms of quality. Quality

includes everything from administrative to academic functioning. Therefore, evalua-

tion plays a crucial role in maintaining the standards. It was found in the study that

only a small number of the research group find institutional evaluation on teaching

satisfactory. However, it has been observed via the interviews that evaluation done by

the Council of Higher Education was perceived to have run mostly as an administrative

inspection organ. Rather than expecting all the support from the Council of Higher

Education, some universities try to meet certain standards by opening special depart-

ments by their own means, which in a way creates a superficial quality. There seems

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to be a rising confusion on maintaining quality standards, which constitute the main

pillars of a higher education institution. Many interrelated concepts connect one

another when considering institutional quality such as the quality of research and

quality of teaching, which indirectly points out the importance of the qualified aca-

demics. High individual quality leads departments to improve their quality standards

and quality departments produce graduates of high quality. Changing a variable in

one direction will inevitably lead to a change in the other variable therefore the best

place for an institution to start career development is the academics' performance

and attitude towards quality (Bakioglu, 1996). The University Council of Jamaica

demonstrates a mixed control: government ownership but statutory status, and with

practicing educators compromising assessment teams. The council uses threshold

standards for registration of institutions and accreditation of programs. It makes

possible the separation of the standard setting and verification process, for which it

is responsible, from the delivery process, which the colleges manage, but it also

makes provision for institutional inputs (Roberts, 2001). Same problems concerning

Africa are seen as well. One of the most significant factors affecting the quality of

universities in Africa is the wide institutional diversity recently brought about by the

large number of private higher education institutions incorporated into the system.

This has heightened the concerns about the lack of accreditation mechanisms and

adequate and reliable information about educational quality within this new context

(Ayarza, 1994).

It would be impossible to talk about global professional standards without consid-

ering the exchange among academics and students. Student mobility in itself pro-

motes academic quality. It enables diversity to be an asset, enhancing the quality of

teaching and research through comparative and distinctive approaches to learning

(Graz declaration, 2003). Exchange among the partners is extended on a wide

spectrum from being a quest academic, to attending international conferences, to

conducting conjoint projects. A previous study with academics working for public

universities (Bakioglu and Hacıfazlıoglu, 2002) revealed that professors have more

contact with their colleagues from other countries while only 40% of the associate

professors stated that they do have the satisfactory interaction with their counter-

parts. 70% of the assistant professors sometimes keep in touch with the colleagues

from other countries. The importance of encouraging young researchers in academic

studies was also pointed out in the European University Association Report, where

career paths for young researchers and teachers, including measures to encourage

young PhDs to continue working in or return to Europe needed to be improved (Graz

declaration, 2003).

Accreditation and standardization issues constitute a multi-dimensional problem

in higher education institutions, not only in developing countries but also in devel-

oped countries. Within Europe, there is multiplicity of higher education systems and

curriculum structures and not all countries have fully operational quality assurance

systems in place. While the existing Quality Assurance systems demonstrated some

common characteristics, mainly in terms of the methods and mechanisms used, the

higher education systems which they serve are different in respect to structures, aims

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

and objectives and the character of programs. These differences make it difficult to

describe common indicators of quality and to facilitate comparison and transparency

at the international level (Campbell and Wende, 2002). It is at least plausible to argue

that in order to warrant the title "institution of higher education", there are certain

activities – connected with learning, understanding and human development – which

an institution necessarily should be promoting and that those activities should be

conducted with regard to minimum standards (Barnett, 1992). In many countries,

universities see research as the price of their survival and their continued social

relevance (Braddock and Neave, 2002) .Yet neither the university nor the school is

the site for full professional development, instead it is the synergy and collaboration

of participants from across various sites that create a new and powerful learning

space-inquiry community (Smith, 2004). In this respect collaborative learning via

academic exchange serves as the stepping-stone in an academics' career. As widening

access to higher education enables new groups of students to enter university, the

issue of standards cannot be avoided (Chevailler, 2002).

The application of various mechanisms such as performance indicators and teaching

grants and awards, which encourage academics to acquire new skills and perspec-

tives not only in research related activities but also channeling it to the teaching

dimension, would create a quality culture in which both research and teaching would

be accepted as the main pillars of an academics' professional identity. It should be

noted that without the teaching function, the continuity of knowledge will be broken

and the store of human knowledge dangerously diminished (Gamage and

Miningberg, 2003). Academics as teachers serve the basis of globalization in terms

of exchange of research and culture. The paper "Internal Procedures for Maintaining

and Monitoring Academic Standards" acknowledges the quality of academic staff is

a crucial factor in standards in higher education: "The academic standards of courses

and the standards which students achieve will be affected by the commitment, teaching

skills and performance of the staff involved, and given the interdependence of

teaching and research, by their research interests and activities" (Moodie, 1988).

Bates (1997) also concluded that in the near future the world will need prospective

teachers, with a holistic and global understanding of education, and lecturers are

involved in this framework as well.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The importance of higher education in people's lives and a nation's development

should not be undermined. The basis of the problems of higher education is lack of

financial resources. In most countries, although higher education is supported by

states, it is not fully funded. In Turkey, to make higher education fair and equal for

everyone, a new path should be followed. Those who have low income may take

support from the state, those who have average income can borrow money from the

state and those who are well off might pay money to their institutions. In this way,

everyone who wants to study will get the chance to continue his or her higher education.

Since the facilities of universities will improve, they will be able to give high quality

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172

teaching. Most families need to become informed about these possibilities and those

with the financial means should make an effort to set aside something for their

children's future (Mutlu, 2000). The individual should be confident that higher

education is not only an expense but also an investment. The long-term financial return

on the investment far exceeds the price students and families pay (www.acanet.edu/

Washington/college costs).

One of the important factors in the quality of education is the lack of opportunities

for an academic's professional development. We cannot expect an academic who has

not done research to be qualified in lecturing. A lecturer refreshes his knowledge

through the research he/she does. He/she brings his /her research to the class and

becomes the initial source himself/herself and works with considerable resources.

Surely, being the initial source means new and up to date knowledge (Bakioglu and

Baltaci, 2000). Basic factors in the quality of research and education are the acade-

mic's salary, laboratory, library, computer facilities and research fund per student.

There is a correlation between maintaining the quality at universities and offering

these through modern techniques. In the United States same problems can be

observed. Among the research universities there is "quality competition" that takes a

number of different forms: bidding for prestigious faculty members and promising

students and vying for research contracts and facilities. This competition requires

financial resources, of course, but success facilitates the acquisition of those

resources (Hanson and Meyerson, 1990). The quality of higher education can be

likened to swimming in water and whether this means swimming in an ocean or a

pool depends on the university's attitude towards professionalism. This professionalism

includes not only qualified academics but also the physical facilities, social and

cultural activities, health centers, social clubs and administrative staff of the university.

These also serve the basis for teaching quality.

The existing resource mechanism at public universities is highly centralized and this

imposes controls over professional development practices without proper consideration

of long-term sustainability.

The Council of National University Quality Assurance should be established and

supported by the Council of Higher Education. The membership fee paid by univer-

sities should form the budget of this council. A committee within this council should

make necessary changes in law to enable universities to make decisions (such as

opening a new department, closing a department or joining departments) in a short

time according to the evaluation results of the Council of Higher Education and

government (Koksoy, 1998). Seminars and workshops must be given to everybody

from academic and administrative staff to cleaning staff to meet the international

standards. Academics like teachers should also have leadership training to ensure that

these capabilities are delivered on a wide scale (Townsend, 2004). While following

all these procedures the thin line between the notion of quality management and

quality culture should not be passed.

Higher Education Institutions, when compared to the past, fulfill their multi

functional responsibilities as contemporary educational environments. A university,

which will provide contemporary education, should maintain a unity with its

AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

academics, students and physical environment and social atmosphere. This unity is

based on the multi dimensional participation of both students and academics. In

a contemporary university, participation and cooperation should not only be within

the institution but within the frame of coordination and cooperation opportunities

between universities. In the administration of the university and the formulation

of regulations, administrators who know the universities should take part. This

participation should be considered within a wide spectrum related to fields rang-

ing from the participation of students in lessons, participation in various social activ-

ities at the university, corporate research and preparation of the curriculum for

administration.

The government should support the foundation of private universities by

forcing them to pay taxes to build new public universities. This will provide more

students with the right to go to a university. Most of the academics at public

universities are not against this process as they are aware of the students who have

to have their degree from a university abroad. One of the fundamental issues in

higher education system is the lack of formal system quality control for students

that would enable them to attain certain academic standards via teaching and

teaching related activities. European Credit Transfer and many partnership agree-

ments signed among Turkish universities and the American universities indirectly

force universities to reach certain quality standards in terms of medium of instruc-

tion, programs, academics and the extra curricular activities. In this way higher

education institutions devise their own ways of standards with the contributions of

their own culture.

The foundation of private universities has a positive impact on the country's economy

since the investment in higher education remains in the country. Quality competition

has some valuable social benefits and the rationale for it is, to a considerable extent,

the improved access to financial resources that goes along with success (Hanson and

Meyerson, 1990). The impact of government funding appears to be less penetrating

in higher education. Universities are left with considerable autonomy to allocate the

funds they receive. Yet heavy reliance on government funds often leaves substantial

autonomy intact. (Levy, 1986). Finance is a substantial determinant of teaching quality,

not only in developed countries but also in developing countries. European Countries

offer their help to developing countries to increase their teaching quality as can be

seen in article 149 of the Council of European Union decision of 2002, which stipulates

that The Community and Member States shall foster cooperation with third world

countries with a view to contributing to the development of quality education in

Europe (Council of European Union, 2002).

The following components serve as the basis for updating standards:

●procedures assessing whether standards should be renewed, what the

specifications for the new standards and whether the newly produced

standards meet the criteria

●methods for the development of standards

(Westerhuis, 2001).

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In order to develop the newly founded universities'standards and teaching quality,

the above elements should be thoroughly followed and possible ambiguities of the

specific standards in many countries should be clarified. As a consequence, the

graduates can have the right to have equal employment opportunities. As univer-

sities survive to meet international standards to keep up with the changes brought

along with globalization, globalization itself could create an internal quality

culture within an institution. Within the process of globalization, cooperation

rather than competition among the higher education institutions should be

encouraged.

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Administration, vol. 29, 4, pp. 425–440.

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pp. 21–23.

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175

ACADEMICS' PERCEPTIONS AND TEACHING QUALITY

176

INTERNET RESOURCES

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AYSEN BAKIOGLU AND OZGE HACIFAZLIOGLU

SECTION THREE

TEACHER PREPARATION: GETTING

THE BRIGHTEST AND MAKING THEM

THE BEST

INTRODUCTION

It is only in the last few years that Australian universities have begun to recognise the

value of mentoring relationships for learning organizations. Up until then there was

a lack of recognition of the potential of mentoring. Matters (2002, p. 1) who views

mentoring as the cornerstone of teaching and learning excellence, recognised that

"enhanced learning outcomes derived from mentoring experiences and demonstrated

by mentors and mentees in workplace teams in a multiplicity of organizations have

been ignored." Mentoring programs designed to improve university student retention

rates are now being put in place, while other programs aim to assist individual staff

(both academic and general) to achieve their potential.

The context of this chapter is one mentoring program that was designed to assist

first year students with their transition to tertiary studies. When the university-wide

program was first introduced, the Faculty of Education decided to trial the mentoring

program with all the Bachelor of Teaching (Secondary) Science students, a selected

number of students enrolled in the Bachelor of Physical Education, and 25% of the

students enrolled in the Bachelor of Education (Primary) degree. To get the mentoring

program up and running with the B. Ed Primary students, first there was the selection

process, whereby 54 students were randomly selected and sent letters inviting them

to participate in the program. Second, those students who agreed to participate were

placed into mentoring groups of approximately six students. Third, each group of

mentees met with an academic staff member who had volunteered to be the mentor

for the group over a six-week period.

This chapter focuses on the experiences of one group of B. Ed Primary mentees,

as well as the role their mentor adopted. The process of group interaction in the

mentoring program is described from the perspective of the mentees who gave

written feedback by email. From the mentees' perspective, these social interactions

succeeded in assisting them to feel confident enough to continue with their studies in

the preservice teacher education course. One mentee wrote:

I think it would be awesome for everyone to be involved in a mentoring

group. A lot of the time I don't think we needed 'guidance'but it was just

great social interaction with people you would otherwise not have met"

C 3/5/02.

Participation in the mentoring program helped the mentees develop their identity as

university students. Each mentee's identity evolved in every new encounter with

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12. MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION:

AN EXPERIENCE THAT MAKES A DIFFERENCE

FOR FLEDGLING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 179–192.

180

other members of the mentoring group. These students discovered that the process of

sharing their experiences, concerns and understandings, has a 'pedagogical power'

that helped them learn the importance of information being presented in connected

ways, rather than as isolated bits of data. They also came to know that an effective

group process leads to collective knowledge or 'insights' (Palmer, 1998). Feedback

from the mentees showed that they considered the informal mentoring process to be

both supportive and empowering.

MENTORING FROM AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The term 'mentor' has a long history, going back to Homer's famous poem the

Odyssey. When King Odysseus left to fight in the Trojan War, his friend Mentor was

trusted with the care of his son, Telemachus. During Odysseus' ten-year absence,

Mentor was a stand-in for Odysseus, and he had to "personify the kingly quality of

wisdom" (Smith and Alred, 1994, p. 103). Although not a biblical word, mentoring

appears to be a biblical concept (Mallison, 2002, p. 28). "Mentoring was a way of life

in Bible times."

There are stories of followers of God who took younger followers under

their wing, providing counsel, challenging beliefs, and demonstrating a

lifestyle of faith. As each generation faced the challenges of discovering

what it meant to be God's people, they benefited from the wisdom and

experience of those who came before them.

(Lawrie, 1998, p. 4)

In the Bible there are numerous examples of mentoring. These include the relation-

ship of Barnabas to Paul, Paul to Titus, Elizabeth to Mary, Naomi to Ruth, Moses to

Joshua, as well as David to Johnathon. In biblical times mentoring occurred in a

variety of ways. Ruth saw Naomi as a person who she wished to model her life on.

Where you go, I will go

Where you lodge, I will lodge

Your people shall be my people, and your God my God

(Ruth 1:16)

Naomi was a type of mentor for Ruth and guided her as she learnt many life-skills, such

as how to make decisions and respond to various situations in a new culture. Naomi gave

Ruth self-confidence, taught her about God, and through shared experiences showed

Ruth how faith becomes part of life. A good example of mentoring is Jesus' close

relationship with his twelve disciples, especially Peter. "Peter is challenged to do things

that he does not believe he can do, to discover new things about God, and to live as a

disciple of Christ" (Lawrie, 1998, p. 4). Timothy and Paul also had a strong mentoring

relationship that started when Timothy journeyed with Paul. As their relationship devel-

oped Paul gradually gave Timothy more responsibility for ministry. "He corrected

Timothy when things went wrong, but above all he respected, valued, supported and

encouraged Timothy. And Timothy grew in stature and wisdom" (Lawrie, 1998, p. 4).

BEVERLEY JANE

Pastor Shank of South Coast Community Church, California, defines mentoring

as a transfer of wisdom from one person to another.

Mentoring is purposeful, intentional, and planned; mentoring is a transfer

of wisdom based on one's life experiences rather than the transfer of knowl-

edge systems or behavioural techniques; and mentoring happens in a

one-to-one personal relationship through time.

(Shank, cited in Otto, 2001, p. 17)

In modern times, in the 1980s, formal mentoring programs were introduced in the

American education sector. Later, in the 1990s, similar programs were developed in

Australia.

What the literature says about mentoring

Mentoring is now becoming a popular concept among learning organizations that are

interested in retaining their students and supporting them in their studies. Although

the concept of mentoring has a range of definitions, in western culture the term

'mentor' is generally associated with a person who has knowledge or expertise in a

specific area. Terms such as guide, advocate, master, sponsor, confidant and pro-

moter are being used to describe the mentor's role. In the context of mentoring these

roles are special because the mentor's skills are being focussed on the specific needs

of the mentee (Welty and Puck, 2001). In the mentoring process a person of experience,

prominence or influence (the mentor) furthers the mentee's growth and development.

In the process the mentor becomes more attuned to the mentee's needs. Parker Palmer

captures the uniqueness of the mentoring relationship:

Mentors and mentees are partners in the dance of spiralling generations,

in which the old empower the young with their experience and the young

empower the old with new life, reweaving the fabric of the human com-

munity as they touch and turn.

(Palmer, 1998, p. 25)

Salzman (2002) highlights the key aspects of mentoring when he describes it as a

relationship, involves sharing, and leads to the development of both the mentor and

the mentee. The sharing aspect is consistent with Forster who describes the mentor-

student relationship as:

Allowing students to direct and extend their learning under the guidance

of another person with expertise in a particular area of talent. The shar-

ing exchange capitalises on students'strengths and the ability of experts.

(Forster, 1998, p. 17)

In Australia there have been some reports of studies involving mentoring programs in

university education courses, such as the report by Reynolds and Grushka (2002). In

one study Aniftos (2002) focussed on the benefits of mentors, not only for the

individual participants but also for the learning organization. After examining the role

of mentoring in relation to job satisfaction for the academic and the organizational

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MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

182

outcomes, Matters (2002) concluded that mentoring is beneficial for both parties.

Matters used her Millennium Mentoring model to contextualise the most successful

and influential types of teaching and learning in education and includes beginning

teachers.

Internationally there has been an increasing focus on mentorship and mentoring

practice. Fritzberg (2003) described his experience with mentoring as a shift from

impersonal policy to personal relationships. Hager (2003) explored faculty-student

mentoring relationships in a community of practice in the Graduate School of Education.

Mentoring can also be important for online learning communities as revealed in

Chang's (2003) model of distance learning.

A MENTORING PROGRAM AIMED AT HELPING

STUDENTS THROUGH TRANSITION

Research has shown that fledgling university students may experience difficulties

with the transition to a tertiary education environment for a variety of reasons. One

reason relates to the need to make a connection with the university. A new student

recalls how she felt on her first day at university.

Arriving at university for the first time after having spent 13 years at

school was daunting to say the least. J 26/5/02

The staff-student mentoring program reported here formed part of an Australian uni-

versity's first year transition process and was set in place to assist students to adapt to

the academic environment. The university responded to statistics relating to first year

students withdrawing from their studies by devising a First Year Initiative which

included supporting staff in establishing successful mentoring programs for new first

year students. The following tables provide a profile of the extent of student loss

through discontinuation in the year 2000 (Tables 12.1 and 12.2).

The university Teaching and Learning Management Plan recommended the

mentoring program as policy. The aim of the mentoring program was to assist students

to feel academically and socially connected to the university and their chosen course, at

the most critical period of their transition, the first six weeks. The mentoring program

was piloted on all campuses in 2002, with all faculties expected to allocate an

BEVERLEY JANE

TABLE 12.1 Withdrawing first year students by location

Percentage of campus

enrolments who

Location by campus Count withdrew

1 243 19

2 116 27

34214

47620

5 518 17

External 253 11

Total 1248 16

academic member of staff (the mentor) to each student (the mentee). Initially it was

assumed that in most cases the mentor would teach at first year level and therefore be

the one with whom the students would have contact in their academic studies.

However, this was not necessarily the case.

Guidelines for the mentoring program suggested that during the first week of the

semester the mentor was to meet the allocated mentees in order to establish a rela-

tionship and set up a schedule or method of contact for the next six weeks. The criti-

cal component of the program was that students are made to feel welcome and know

that someone is interested in how they are handling their units and courses. Each

mentor was to determine the most appropriate form of contact, such as face-to-face,

telephone, email or hard mail. In the following section first, the intended outcomes

for the learning organization are identified and second, the collaboration, nurturing

and shared responsibility that occurred within one mentoring group is examined.

From the perspective of the learning organization, the outcomes that can be

achieved through this mentoring process include:

Outcome 1 Students feel part of the faculty and University as a whole.

Outcome 2 Students are confident to approach academic staff and discuss issues.

Outcome 3 Students attend lectures and actively participate in the academic

program.

Outcome 4 Academic staff members are aware of issues facing new students and

the support services available to assist students and staff.

RECRUITMENT OF STUDENTS AND STAFF MENTORS

It was the responsibility of each faculty to work out how it would implement the men-

toring program. The Faculty of Education set up a Committee that decided, due to a

large intake of first year students (more than 400) and only a limited number of volun-

teer mentors, that it was not possible to match the suggested six to one staff ratio.

Therefore a 'pilot program' was offered, and 25% of those enrolled in the Bachelor of

Education Primary degree were arbitrarily selected to participate in the mentoring

program. All Bachelor of Teaching (Secondary) Science students were contacted and

offered mentors because this cohort had been identified, according to previous data, as

having a lower 'transition' rate. A selected number of students enrolled in the Bachelor

of Physical Education were also invited to participate in the mentoring program.

Most staff mentors were 'recruited'on the basis of the Committee's prior knowledge

in relation to the following questions. Who would be willing to be involved? Who

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MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

TABLE 12.2 Withdrawing first year students by gender

Percentage of

Count withdrawals

Male 485 39

Female 763 61

Total 1248 100

184

saw this as an important aspect of first year teaching? Personal contacts between staff

were critical in terms of recruiting enough mentors to cover the 'pilot program'.

"However, the Committee feels that this is not good enough in terms of the univer-

sity's commitment to FYI. If it does really matter then staff should be informed,

recruited, trained and acknowledged in terms of workload for this initiative" (Allard,

2002, p. 2). Initial contact with potential 'pilot study students' was via a letter signed

by the 'mentor' (refer to Figure 12.1). Below, two B. Ed Primary students recall their

initial reactions on receiving their letters of invitation to participate.

As a first year student I was invited to participate in a program to help

ease me into University life. In February when I received a letter in the

post that invited me to participate in the mentoring program, I was very

surprised and thought why me? I wasn't sure whether I should take part

BEVERLEY JANE

Figure 12.1. An example of a letter to a potential mentee

8 February, 2002

Dear student,

Welcome to the University and the Faculty of Education. We hope you will have a

successful year!

This year, the Faculty of Education is initiating a trial 'Mentoring' program involving a

small group of randomly selected first year students. The program is intended to run over

the first six weeks of Semester One. The purpose of this staff-student mentoring initiative

is to introduce new students to at least one staff member who can:

• Help you to make the transition to university life.

• Give you useful information, or refer y ou to the appropriate person to help you

with specific questions.

• Help you with appropriate learning and time management skills.

• Help you to make sense of your new learning environment.

I would like to invite you to participate in this new initiative. As a staff 'mentor' I can

help you settle into your course and the subjects that you have chosen. I will be working

with approximately six other first year students in this trial program, so if you choose to

participate, we can meet as a small group. The amount of time involved and type of

contact (eg. via email, phone calls, or face-to-face) can be negotiated over the six weeks.

Participation is completely up to you, but we hope that this program will help new

students such as yourself to feel more 'at home' at the university.

If you would like to participate in this trial Mentoring program, or would like more

information, please ring or email me BEFORE Wednesday, February 20th .

My contact details are as follows:

Phone number:

Email address:

We can then arrange a time and place to meet during Orientation week.

Best wishes,

in the program. I decided that I would, I thought that if there is anything

that will support me in the process of adjusting to university life then

I would take it. J 13/5/02

I was a bit hesitant about the mentoring when I first received the letter in

the mail. Would the people be nice?? But I thought that since my first

year at Uni in 1999 has been such a strain I should embrace anything

that might help me settle in better this time around. I am really glad I did.

C 3/5/02

Follow up included either phone calls or email contact, and in all instances at least

one face-to-face discussion. The Mentoring Package on the Orientation Website was

very helpful in the initial stages of informing staff about the mentoring program and

clarifying what was expected of them.

Benefits of a heterogeneous group

As one of the volunteer mentors, a few days after the letters had been posted I tele-

phoned my assigned B. Ed Primary students to organise the first meeting, which was to

be held in Orientation week. During this meeting the group decided we would meet for

one hour at 2pm on Mondays, weekly for the first two weeks and then fortnightly.

In order to address the mentees' agenda the focus of each session was generally

left open until the particular session. In the second week the group number increased

unexpectedly when two female students (who had not received letters) requested to

join our group. A positive response meant that our group consisted of six females and

two males. Of these eight, six students regularly turned up for the mentoring ses-

sions. (Unfortunately once syndicate groups were formed for the Education Studies

major unit, one of the males could no longer attend due to a timetable clash.)

The group can be described as heterogeneous, because it consisted of several

mature age students (two had transferred from other universities and one was return-

ing to study after working as a bank manager) and two students who came directly

from school after gaining their Victorian Certificate of Education. Below two

mentees describe the value of the group being heterogeneous.

The program involved a group of first year students that were all study-

ing towards the same degree, but most of us had different backgrounds.

A couple of girls were straight out of school; a few of us were in our early

20s and had been working for a few years and another who is a father

with a previous history of working in the bank. This mixture was useful in

the way that we were able to share different experiences.

J 13/5/02

I think to have a mix of people was important as we were introduced to

each other in a welcoming and friendly manner that fostered a feeling of

safety and friendship within the group as a whole. People from different

age and backgrounds found a group where they could share their experi-

ences. I think that for some it meant that they had a friendly face to speak

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MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

186

to. (I noted several of the shyer girls felt that they could speak up by the

second meeting).

A 1/6/02

THE MENTORING ROLE

One assumption made in the mentoring initiative was that all academic staff are com-

petent as mentors. This assumption cannot be taken for granted because effective

mentors must have certain qualities, as Tilley identifies.

Mentors need to be committed to the educational exercise and to take an

interest in the personal and professional development of the mentee.

Mentors need to be flexible enough to tolerate and appreciate the

uniqueness and individuality of the mentees.

(Tilley, 2002, pp. 17–18)

For an effective mentoring relationship to develop it is crucial that the mentor has

good interpersonal skills and the ability to:

●Listen very attentively.

●Deal with differences of opinion in a non-judgemental manner.

●Ask open-ended questions rather than closed ones.

●Focus on the mentee's agenda.

●Show flexibility and be creative.

●Use these interpersonal skills for the benefit of the other person.

●Leave the mentoring role when it is no longer appropriate or requested as some-

times 'Letting go' can be a difficult element of mentoring.

Throughout the mentoring process described here no fixed guidelines directed my

role as mentor, and there was no set structure for each session. Several mentees

describe how they felt about the mentoring program and indicate that the 'lack of

formal structure' actually encouraged meaningful interaction.

The mentor program worked for our group despite the lack of formal struc-

ture or framework given to the staff. This was due mainly to Dr Jane's honest

and caring nature shown openly from the very first meeting. She was

genuinely interested in learning about how 1st years found the university

especially during the first few weeks and the orientation week program.

A 1/6/02

Even though the program does not have any formal structure that we

have followed, I think that it has been useful in having it that way. As it

allows the people involved to introduce personal fears and questions.

J 13/5/02

I'm not sure if it would work as well if people were forced or required to

attend. I think what made our group work so well was that we wanted to

meet and it wasn't some big structured thing.

C 3/5/02

BEVERLEY JANE

Perhaps one reason for the success of this particular mentoring group was that I was

not teaching any first year units and therefore not assessing the mentees' work. As I

did not teach the mentees in their academic program they did not feel threatened, and

they could talk openly and honestly about their assessment tasks.

Progressing to deeper levels in the mentoring sessions

During the mentoring sessions the group focused on the concerns and issues that

arose in day-to-day University life that the mentees wanted to talk about, as shown by

their comments below.

We had weekly or fortnightly meetings in which we would share ques-

tions or problems we had been having in particular subjects and would

be able to reassure each other that we weren't the only ones feeling lost

or confused.

J 26/5/02

The fortnightly meetings were great. Relaxed, and just an opportunity to

tell each other what's been going on. In that way I think it was really a

great social thing. Plus it was fantastic having somewhere to ask ques-

tions that came up and not sound like an idiot.

C 3/5/02

As time progressed such discussions moved to a more personal level, as can be seen

in the session outlines below:

Week 1 Meeting as a group. "Getting to know you" (name, major focus etc.)

Week 2 Sorting out any problems. Are your timetables worked out?

Week 4 Talking about families, living arrangements and means of transport to

University.

Week 6 Removing fears about assessment and discussion about how to meet

assignment commitments and deadlines. Two mentees brought their

lunch and we discussed the eating venues at the University. Some

mentees felt apprehensive about going to the Student Restaurant so we

planned to have lunch there the next session.

Week 8 Eating lunch together at the Student Restaurant.

Week 9 Celebrating mentee's birthday as part of a break up party.

ANALYSIS OF THE MENTORING EXPERIENCE

IN RELATION TO THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION'S

INTENDED OUTCOMES

At the end of the semester the mentees' comments about the program were examined

to see how their mentoring experiences related to the intended outcomes of the

mentoring program. Analysis revealed that the main outcomes for students were that

they felt connected to the faculty and that they were 'regularly' attending university

lectures and tutorials. The achieved outcomes are identified below and supported by

mentees' written feedback.

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MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

188

Outcome 1 Students feel part of the faculty and

University as a whole

One of the most encouraging outcomes was the increased confidence and develop-

ment shown by the two mentees who had come to university directly from secondary

school. They volunteered to speak at the university's Open Day and willingly shared

their experiences of university life with 130 people in the Faculty of Education's

Information session.

The mentor program has been a fantastic way to ease into uni life with a

group of others in the same position as myself.

J 26/5/02

What I found very useful is the fact that we were introduced to a variety

of different people, but also it gave you a good start in feeling comfort-

able at University.

J 11/5/02

For me the mentoring experience with first year education students was

very positive and enjoyable. Our regular chats fostered a sense of con-

nectedness that enables each group member to settle in quickly and hap-

pily to university life.

Mentor 18/10/02

Outcome 2 Students are confident to approach academic

staff and discuss issues

The meetings were set up weekly, where we would meet for under an hour

and share our feelings and experiences.

J 13/5/02

By having someone from the education faculty to go to with queries was

also a huge relief in those first few tentative weeks.

J 26/5/02

Outcome 3 Students attend lectures and actively participate

in the academic program

I thought the Mentor program was a really good way to meet and talk to

people you mightn't otherwise have the courage to talk to. When uni

starts and you know no one it can be really scary and no one wants to

admit that they need help. Having the mentor program then gives people

the chance to meet more people and discuss common issues with other

people who otherwise would be feeling lost too! It's really nice too, to be

able to talk to a group of people who you might not normally speak

to. My first experience at Uni (1999) was that it was really hard to

make friends. For me that was one of the big bonuses of this mentoring

BEVERLEY JANE

group. It gave me faces I recognised, people I could sit with in lectures

and tutes.

C 3/5/02

I've formed some great friendships through the mentoring group and it's

somewhat reassuring to be able to walk into a class and know that you

have someone to sit with.

J 26/5/02

I found that even students that had meetings only two or three times

benefited in that they were able to recognise a number of students

around, and some have formed friendship groups in classes.

A 1/6/02

Outcome 4 Academic staff are aware of issues facing new students

and are familiar with the support services available to assist students

and staff

From the discussions I learned that there is a mature age students' room

with microwave facilities. I also became familiar with other support

services available.

Mentor 18/10/02

ANALYSIS OF THE MENTORING EXPERIENCE IN

RELATION TO THE

STUDENT-MENTOR ENCOUNTER

In this section discussion is consistent with Parker Palmer's view of mentoring as:

Mutuality that requires more than meeting the right teacher; the teacher

must meet the right student. In this encounter, not only are the qualities

of the mentor revealed, but also the qualities of the student are drawn out

in a way that is equally revealing.

(Palmer, 1998, p. 21)

In the mentoring program reported here the mentees developed positive relation-

ships, not only with their mentor but also with each other. Mallison (1998, p. 8)

argues that: "Good mentoring involves bonding, connectedness, rapport, mateship,

affinity, things in common and genuine concern." The relationships that developed

within this particular mentoring group were dynamic, shared, and grew to be stimu-

lating and empowering. Trust developed very quickly and the mentees felt comfort-

able and confident to express their concerns openly to members of the group. This

relaxed situation led naturally to 'peer' mentoring, with the mentees spontaneously

engaged in both giving and receiving. Students visibly enjoyed being in one another's

company. They always arrived promptly for the sessions which is a sign that these

students valued the rich mentoring experience.

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MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

190

As a mentor who views mentoring as holistic, the mentoring process was deliber-

ately mentee-centred, rather than performance-centred. This view is consistent with

Mallison (1998, p. 87) who contends that: "The ideal mentor is a functional mentor,

responding to the needs of the mentees in varying situations." I adopted the role of

'encourager' and provided the mentees with the freedom and space to develop their

confidence and self-esteem. According to Palmer, an effective mentor endeavours to

identify the mentees' real needs by being a good listener in dialogue.

Forced to listen, respond, and improvise, I am more likely to hear some-

thing unexpected and insightful from myself as well as others. My iden-

tity is more fulfilled in dialogue.

(Palmer, 1998, p. 24)

Each member of the mentoring group brought their own perspective to the sessions.

Because the mentees offered their opinions freely and openly shared their experi-

ences, the group became knowledgeable about the learning organization. Palmer

refers to this collective knowledge as insights.

If you can get all of these people and their perceptions to multiply expo-

nentially in a good group process, it is sometimes possible for a collec-

tion of amateurs to come up with solid insights.

(Palmer, 1998, p. 126)

In the process of sharing experiences, concerns and understandings the students wit-

nessed the 'pedagogical power of the community of truth' because "the human brain

works best with information presented not in the form of isolated data bits but in

patterns of meaningful connection, in a community of data, as it were" (Palmer,

1998, p. 127). The mentoring group described in this chapter developed pedagogical

power that helped the mentees to learn together. "Learning together also offers them

a chance to look at reality through the eyes of others: instead of forcing them to

process everything through their own limited vision" (Palmer,1998, p. 127). This

sharing enabled the mentees to develop their own identity as fully-fledged university

students. The mentoring process that these preservice teacher education students

experienced should empower them to become teachers who understand the impor-

tance of meaningful connection and good group process. As such they will be in a

position to put this knowledge into practice in their own classrooms.

CONCLUSION

The rich mentoring experience described in this chapter was beneficial for the first

year Pre-service Teacher Education students involved. Over time, through their

willing participation in the mentoring process, they understand that collaborative

interaction can be a positive learning experience. During the mentoring sessions the

mentees frequently addressed one another's concerns, rather than always turning to

the mentor for the solution. The collaborative group situation had 'pedagogical

power' because different perspectives were shared, resulting in the mentees feeling

BEVERLEY JANE

positive and connected to the university. At the end of the first semester most

mentees in this group revealed that they felt confident and comfortable about their

studies. Students learned that a sense of connectedness is fostered when mentees are

encouraged to share their concerns within a mentoring group.

REFERENCES

Allard, A. C. (2002) Report by the FYI Faculty of Education Organising Committee.

Aniftos, M. (2002) Problematic futures? Challenging negative self-fulfilling prophecies through mentoring.

Paper presented at the 2002 Australian Association for Research in Education conference

Problematic Futures: Educational Research in an era of … Uncertainty, Brisbane, December 1–5.

Chang, S. L. (2003) Mentors in online learning: A model of distance learning community. Paper presented

at the 2003 American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Accountability for

Educational Quality Shared Responsibility, Chicago, Illinois, April 21–25.

Forster, J. (1998) Think about … mentoring. Cheltenham: Hawker Brownlow Education.

Fritzberg, G. J. (2003) From impersonal policy to personal relationships: An educational researcher's

experience with mentoring. Paper presented at the 2003 American Educational Research

Association Annual Meeting, Accountability for Educational Quality Shared Responsibility,

Chicago, Illinois, April 21–25.

Hager, M. J. (2003) Mentoring in a Community of Practice: Faculty-student Mentoring Relationships in a

Graduate School of Education. Paper presented at the 2003 American Educational Research

Association Annual Meeting, Accountability for Educational Quality Shared Responsibility,

Chicago, Illinois, April 21–25.

Lawrie, C. (1998) The Ministry of Mentor. Uniting Education: Melbourne.

Mallison, J. (1998) Mentoring to Develop Disciples and Leaders . Adelaide: Openbook.

Mallison, J. (2002) Who Nurtures Our Leaders? ALIVE Magazine , April, pp. 26–30.

Matters, P. N. (2002) Mentoring: Cornerstone of Teaching and Learning Excellence. Paper presented at

the 2002 Australian Association for Research in Education conference Problematic Futures:

Educational Research in an era of … Uncertainty, Brisbane, December 1–5.

Otto, D. (2001) Finding a Mentor, Being a Mentor. Oregon: Harvest House.

Palmer, P. (1998) The Courage to Teach. Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher's Life. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

Reynolds, R. and Grushka, K. (2002) Mentoring in a University/Senior High School Collegiate. A Study

of the Learning Environment and the Mentor/Mentee Relationship. Paper presented at the 2002

Australian Association for Research in Education conference Problematic Futures: Educational

Research in an era of … Uncertainty, Brisbane, December 1–5.

Salzman, J. (2002) The promise of mentoring: The challenge of professional development. Cheltenham:

Hawker Brownlow Education.

Smith, R. and Ahred, G. (1994) The impersonation of wisdom, in McIntyre, D., Hagger, H. and Wilkin, M. (eds)

Mentoring perspectives on school-based teacher education. London: Kogan Page, pp. 103–106.

Tilley, D. (2002) in Helm, N. and Allin, P. (eds) Finding Support in Ministry. Cambridge: Grove Books,

pp. 16–19.

Welty, K. and Puck, B. (2001) Modeling Athena Preparing Young Women for Work and Citizenship in a

Technological Society. Menomonie: University of Wisconsin-Stout.

191

MENTORING IN TEACHER EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Recent times have seen a questioning of content-driven, discipline-based curricula in

schools. There have been moves away from these approaches towards curricula based

on the skills and strategies required in a changing world (ACDE, 2001). This has

resulted in initiatives in several Australian States aimed at promoting 'new learning'

approaches in schools. One of the Australian Council of Deans of Educations (ACDE

2001, 2004) 'new learning' and 'new teaching' propositions relates to the encourage-

ment of 'lifewide learning', or learning 'beyond the classroom'. This chapter describes

how these 'new learning' propositions, and in particular, the concept of 'lifewide

learning' can be utilised to shift pre-service teachers' (PSTs) conceptualisations of

teaching and learning.

During the past decade in particular, there has been much debate in education

about the types of skills that school students will need to equip them for their future

working lives (ACDE, 2001). In Australia, for example, new approaches to teaching

and learning have included the New Basics program in Queensland, the Essential

Learnings programs in South Australia and Tasmania, and the Essential Learnings

framework in Victoria. These approaches call for an integrated approach to curricula

to better adapt students to the requirements of a changing world so that they can

become active and socially responsible citizens (DeLors, 1996). Such approaches

involve the development of intellectually stimulating, 'rich' and 'real life' tasks, and

a focus on skills such as independent learning and problem-solving.

One of the 'new learning' propositions upon which such curriculum development

should be based, according to the ACDE (2001), is that learning should be lifelong

and lifewide. Although the concept of lifelong learning is well established (Candy,

1991), the concept of lifewide learning is new and appears to be still relatively

unexplored. The ACDE propositions hold much hope and scope for the development

of new conceptualisations of teaching and learning but there appears to be little

reporting of the results of their operationalisation.

Observations of classrooms that have adopted 'new' approaches to learning, under

guises such as, for example, the 'thinking curriculum' and with the laudable aims of

encouraging the development of deeper thinking skills amongst children, reveal that

these approaches can still result in mechanistic and disengaged responses from

children. Such approaches purport to be moving away from content-based, discipline

specific curricula, towards more integrated and 'real life' or 'authentic' tasks.

193

JANETTE RYAN

13. EXPLORING 'LIFEWIDE LEARNING'

AS A VEHICLE FOR SHIFTING PRE-SERVICE

TEACHERS' CONCEPTIONS OF

TEACHING AND LEARNING

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 193–204.

194

Where 'new' aims and concepts are overlaid on existing understandings of teaching

and learning, however, unless there is a reconceptualisation of teaching and learning,

they run the risk of reversion to conventional approaches.

For PSTs, it is imperative that they embrace these new approaches to learning from

the beginnings of their professional practice. As PSTs will have largely experienced

conventional approaches to teaching and learning through their own schooling, they

need to be encouraged to shift their understandings of teaching and learning. The

'new learning'propositions, and the concept of lifewide learning in particular, can be

useful vehicles to effect this shift.

Bachelor of Education programs generally aim to encourage deeper learning

amongst their pre-service teachers and deeper understandings of teaching and learning.

PSTs need to be encouraged to explore their own approaches to teaching and learning,

especially in the professional experience (or practicum) component of the course.

They need to be encouraged to move away from preoccupations with technical

assessments of their teaching practice during the professional experience and to

focus upon the learning that occurs within it.

This chapter reports on how this was carried out in one program, using a re-

conceptualised education studies unit based around the New Learning propositions.

It explains how these were introduced into unit content and assessment tasks, and

describes the resultant shift in the PSTs' attitudes towards teaching and learning. The

unit offered a platform and an opportunity to introduce new conceptualisations of

teaching and learning. The concept of 'lifewide learning' was used as a vehicle,

through the introduction in a new education studies unit in the second year of the

course, to try to encourage this reconceptualisation. The unit not only encourages

PSTs to embrace lifewide learning as part of their studies in the unit, but also requires

them to introduce the concept in their professional experience work in schools. At the

end of the first year of operation of the unit, PSTs were surveyed about their views

on the unit to determine whether there had been significant shifts in their views on

teaching and learning and the nature of these changes.

BACKGROUND

The Bachelor of Education course within which the unit is placed aims broadly to

promote deeper understandings of teaching and learning amongst PSTs. It encompasses

a new model for professional field experience aimed at changing the focus away from

a 'technical', competency-based, assessment of the placement, to the learning that

occurs within it by both PSTs and their students in schools.

According to Martinez et al. (2001), most of the literature on the teaching

practicum does not focus on the teaching success experienced by teaching students

during their practicum experiences. Instead, they argue, there is a focus on an

outcomes-based approach to assessing students, where competencies and standards

are used to measure student outcomes, or specific performance skills, rather than

the effectiveness of the teaching undertaken by student teachers, or their own

learning during the placement. Slee (1998) describes the impact in education of what

Lyotard (1984) refers to as the 'cult of performativity', that is, the shift from 'the

JANETTE RYAN

teacher as an educated professional towards one of the competent practitioner'(Slee,

1998, p. 264), with an 'expanding raft of outcome indicators that permeate all levels

of education work'(p. 263), reducing teaching to 'technical work'.

As part of this new course, the professional experience program aims to develop

deeper learning amongst PSTs. The program begins very early in the first year of the

course, and continues throughout the academic year. The course includes both P-6

and P-10 streams, but the placement in second year for all PSTs is in a primary

school. Education studies units support the program and facilitate deeper learning

and connections between the learning that occurs at university and within school

placements. The new unit is specifically designed to encourage more collaborative

and reflective approaches to teaching and learning in schools and to encourage PSTs

to explore their own approaches to teaching and learning through innovative and

creative teaching strategies.

At the end of the first year of the new course in 2001, first year students were

surveyed on their responses to the new degree program (Brandenburg and Ryan,

2001; Ryan et al., 2001; Ryan and Brandenburg, 2002). One of the strongest findings

that emerged from PSTs' responses was their positive reactions to the new profes-

sional experience program. This program entails PSTs spending a day each week in a

primary school from early in the first semester in Year 1 of the course, and continuing

through Year 2. PSTs undertake the program in 'buddy pairs', under the 'mentorship'

rather than the supervision, of the classroom teacher. This approach involves not just

a change in nomenclature, but a change in the positioning of relationships within the

professional experience. It is designed to move from a model where the 'neophyte'

learns from the 'expert', to the learner constructing their own learning in partnership

with their peers, and under the guidance and support of their mentor. This approach

is designed to facilitate deeper learning within the professional experience and to

move away from a reliance on technical, 'checklist' approaches to assessing compe-

tencies. PSTs overwhelmingly reacted positively to the new professional experience

program (Brandenburg and Ryan, 2001), and their responses were marked by high

levels of enthusiasm, expressions of confirmation of career choice, and feedback on

the positive relationships built up during the year with teacher/mentors and children

in the classroom.

NEW APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

PSTs are encouraged to explore innovative and creative approaches to teaching and

learning. As part of this, they are required to implement 'lifewide'learning (ACDE,

2001, 2004), that is, learning beyond conventional classroom-based, teacher-directed

environments. According the Australian Council of Deans of Education (2004),

lifewide learning is about 'learning across life' and requires a 'new perception of

education' (p. 21). The Council's 2001 'New Learning'charter, however, only briefly

described what the concept of lifewide learning might entail.

['New learning' recognizes] [T]hat learning will be lifelong and

lifewide, acknowledges the greying of the population and the short

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EXPLORING 'LIFEWIDE LEARNING'

196

shelflife of technological skills. In an era signified by rapid change, the

need to promote autonomous learning is paramount – citizens must learn

to learn, throughout and across their lives. Lifewide learning recognizes

the need for much greater flexibility and diversity of educational experi-

ences: learning should occur in parks, in pool halls, and outside of

traditional institutions.

(ACDE, 2001, p. 2)

The concept of lifewide learning offers much promise but is relatively unexplored in

the literature and appears to still require a well-articulated theoretical basis. There

also appear to be few examples of attempts to operationalise the concept although

there have been individual attempts by schools to incorporate learning outside the

classroom. There are some conceptual parallels with other approaches to learning

and knowledge, such as the concepts of knowledge building communities

(Cambourne, 2001) and situated learning (Lave and Wenger, 1991) which both

encompass notions of learning beyond conventional classroom structures. Ryan

(2002) notes, however, that despite some moves within schools to incorporate learning

outside of the classroom into curricula (such as through VET programs in schools)

student teacher learning continues to be contained most often within the confines of

school classrooms. There have been some moves by universities elsewhere, however,

towards more community-based programs such as at Victoria University (Ryan,

2002) and at James Cook University (Matters, 2002).

The unit Creating Learning Environments builds on PSTs' learning in the profes-

sional experience in the first year, and encourages approaches to teaching and learning

based on the 'new learning' propositions (ACDE, 2001). The unit runs alongside the

weekly placement in schools. The main learning task of the unit is a requirement that

PSTs design and deliver an innovative education program or project in their school

which embodies the new learning propositions. PSTs' projects must incorporate

innovative and creative learning approaches and be informed by the theoretical

perspectives underpinning the unit.

The unit is grounded in experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1984) and is informed

by the areas of productive pedagogies (Luke, 2002), knowledge building communi-

ties (Cambourne, 2001), inquiry learning (Murdoch and Hornsby, 2000), realistic

pedagogy and reflective practice (Korthagen, 2001) and the 'new learning' proposi-

tions (ACDE, 2001). The intention behind the unit is to provide opportunities for

PSTs to investigate and develop innovative approaches to their teaching practice

based on the principles espoused in these theoretical areas. PSTs' projects have to

be firmly based on the principles of experiential learning; develop knowledge

building communities amongst the PSTs themselves and their students in schools;

involve rich and engaging real-life tasks; and be innovative and future-oriented. Not

all projects are successful, but PSTs are encouraged to learn from both 'successes'

and 'failures' as part of the experiential and reflective learning cycles. They

are encouraged to see risk-taking and experimentation as an unavoidable and desir-

able component of innovation and creativity. They are also encouraged to take on

JANETTE RYAN

more active roles within schools and to develop more collegial relationships

(Martinez et al., 2000).

The unit is also built on Dewey's (1938) view that experience followed by reflection

results in growth. This perspective underpins the pedagogical approaches and expe-

riential learning forms the nucleus of the unit and the project, and is followed by

reflection where students are encouraged to reflect on the positives and negatives of

their project work and its outcomes. The experiential approach also recognises that

PSTs' previous experiences of schooling and education will have a major impact on

their subsequent learning.

The fact that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience

has important educational implications. Put simply, it implies that all

learning is relearning. How easy and tempting it is in designing a course

to think of the learner's mind as being as blank as the paper in which we

scratch our outline.

(Kolb, 1984, p. 28)

Lander et al ., (1995) note that there is much rhetoric in university learning environ-

ments about the need for constructivist approaches to learning but little evidence of

this occurring in practice. Students have reported, however, that their learning is

improved when 'learning experiences were practical and experiential' (Clarke, 1998,

p. 102). Rather than replicate, imitate and assimilate, the PSTs are encouraged to

experience, reflect, question and collaborate. Their knowledge is progressively

constructed, not transmitted from the 'knowledgeable other' or 'expert'.

An important aspect of this learning journey is to challenge PSTs' views

(Brandenburg and Ryan, 2001; Ryan and Brandenburg, 2002) and existing beliefs

and images of teaching (Young, 1995). These students had completed an intensive

'apprenticeship' regarding the teaching and learning process in the first year of

their course. Their own learning was influenced by their social and cultural

environments. For many, their previous experiences of teaching and learning were

destined to be replicated in their own practice and many had felt that this was

entirely satisfactory (Brandenburg and Ryan, 2001). The professional field experi-

ence provided the opportunity to be inducted into the professional learning

environment where skills, attitudes and methods of teaching and knowledge could

be developed rather than merely transmitted. The intention was to avoid the cre-

ation of the 'dutiful technocrat' (Hayes, 2002, p. 5) and instead provide opportunities

for the development of creative professionals, capable of collaborative teamwork,

who are responsive to learners'needs, and reflective and flexible in multiple learning

environments.

The unit is also designed to facilitate the development of supportive professional

relationships and to move away from the apprentice/assessor model. 'Building rela-

tionships begins with a genuine concern to listen, to be aware of the changing nature

of the classroom context, and to be interested in, and responsive to, the needs of

the students.' (Loughran and Russell, 1997, p. 59) Assessment is designed to be

developmental rather than regulatory.

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EXPLORING 'LIFEWIDE LEARNING'

198

In the absence of concrete examples of lifewide learning to guide the development

of the unit and the PSTs' work in schools, PSTs work in groups to develop their own

conceptualisations of the concept and its translation into work with children in

schools. The Creating Learning Environments unit involves PSTs investigating,

developing and delivering a school-based project that meets a particular curriculum

or education need of the school. PSTs generally work on projects in pairs or groups

under the guidance of their teacher/mentor. The delivery of the unit itself is also

designed to explore alternative methods of delivery, moving away from the transmis-

sion or 'banking' (Freire, 1970) approach to teaching and learning, towards a model

designed to encourage knowledge building communities and independent learning

(Cambourne, 2001). It is designed to provide maximum support for and encourage-

ment of alternative teaching and learning approaches. Information sessions (on needs

analysis design, experiential learning, lifewide learning, working with school com-

munities, and the inquiry learning process) accompany formal lectures. Tutorials are

supplemented with sessions where PSTs discuss and workshop their ideas, practice

teaching 'active' and 'engaged' learning tasks to their peers, and share their experi-

ences and insights from their observations in schools. In these sessions PSTs are

encouraged to participate as equal partners in their learning, in their roles as emerg-

ing practitioners, to become 'knowledge building communities'(Cambourne, 2001).

Learning is largely experiential (through the weekly experience in schools and

peer group discussions in groups of eight following this), with de-briefing and reflec-

tion built in. Dialogue during the debriefing sessions is directed by the PSTs. Their

needs are discussed, anxieties and 'critical moments' shared, readings linked to the

professional experience program are distributed and discussed as a group, and oral

and written reflections are used in the continuing development of the unit. There is a

deliberate attempt to foster collaborative learning, to facilitate PSTs' learning from

each others' experiences as well as their own.

The most under-used resource in higher education is the students them-

selves. A great deal of research and development work on peer teaching

has been done in Australia and elsewhere, and the conclusion is that stu-

dents are more effective teachers than we are!

(Ramsden, 1995, p. 6)

The project planning, implementation and presentation requires professional project

standards, and culminates in a professional presentation of the project outcomes. The

project also gives PSTs an opportunity and space within the school curriculum to

develop their own innovative approaches to teaching and learning, rather than falling

into a tendency to mimic the approach of their supervising teacher. Many PSTs

report that the project gives them an opportunity for the first time to feel like an equal

at the school, and not an outsider or interloper, as they work side-by-side with teachers

at the school, and make a positive contribution to the school.

Teacher/mentors also received training early in the new mentoring program about

the changed expectations of the relationship between mentor and PST and the need to

support PSTs in risk-taking in developing new approaches to teaching and learning

JANETTE RYAN

(see Smith and Zeegers, 2002). The program is designed to provide maximum support

to PSTs, rather than working from a position where judgements are made about PSTs'

performance. 'Community coordinators' also support PSTs in their placement. These

are people who have substantial experience working in schools (such as ex-principals

or part-time teachers) who provide support and feedback to PSTs in their schools.

A final, formal 15-day practicum at the end of the second semester moves PSTs into

a more structured program where they are then able to also demonstrate their abilities

in conventional classroom environments.

The unit and its learning and assessment tasks are designed to enable PSTs to

develop skills and abilities that would better equip them to deal with the increasing

uncertainty (Cope and Kalantzis, 2000; ACDE, 2001; Kalantzis and Harvey, 2002)

they will be facing in their future teaching careers. The nature of new knowledge and

the changing world of work and social environments and expectations (Cope and

Kalantzis, 2000; ACDE, 2001) will mean that future teachers will not only need to

respond to rapidly changing conditions, increasing diversity, and the 'thicker con-

nections' required in a global world (Gee, 2001), but will have to be able to equip

their own students accordingly as well. The need to become more self-reliant and

self-directed is evident, as well as the need to shape 'certain kinds of persons' rather

than merely transmit knowledge.

[A] new range of skills will be required, to do less with departing defined

knowledge than with shaping a kind of person. In the knowledge economy,

excellent learners will be autonomous and self-directed – designers of

their own learning experiences, in collaboration with others as well as

by themselves (Gee, 2000:51) … This is not to deny that many contem-

porary educators are already reflective practitioners, proactive towards

change, and well connected towards the broader community. The need

for these attributes will surely become more acute.

(Kalantzis and Harvey, 2002, p. 8)

By enabling PSTs to use and operationalise these new approaches to teaching and

learning within the unit and within their work in schools, it provides an opportunity

for them to link theory and practice and thereby provides the trigger for their own

lifelong and lifewide learning.

STUDENT RESPONSES

In order to inform the future development of the unit, PSTs' views about the content

and processes of the unit were obtained at the completion of the first year of operation

of the unit. PSTs' responses to the new unit, and the overall program, were collected

via a range of sources towards the end of the semester, where they were asked to write

about their views on the unit and the professional experience. One tutorial group

(n  12) completed an open-ended 'freewrite' where they were asked to complete a

detailed, written reflection. The whole second year cohort (n 90) also met during

the final week of lectures and were asked to write about their philosophy of teaching

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EXPLORING 'LIFEWIDE LEARNING'

200

(their attitudes towards teaching and learning); their views about the strengths or

weaknesses of the program; and their suggestions for improvements.

A thematic analysis of this data revealed a number of emergent issues. These were:

●Positive responses to the professional field experience;

●PSTs' perceptions of the nature of their learning;

●Responses to learning and assessment tasks; and

●Changing attitudes towards teaching and learning.

Responses to the professional field experience

Responses to the professional field experience were overwhelmingly positive, as they

had been in the first year of their course (Brandenburg and Ryan, 2001). Students

commented that they felt the experience was positive and an opportunity to connect

their learning at university with their experiences in school. They also commented on

the usefulness of the reflection cycles, especially with their 'buddy' peer.

My mentor was extremely helpful towards both my teaching experience

and my work at the university and has been an exceptional role model for

me as a future teacher.

I also found the 'buddy' pairs to be an effective way to approach the field-

work experience as it gave me an opportunity to reflect on my own teach-

ing methods as well as having somebody in the same situation to reflect

on and observe at the same time.

The nature of PSTs'learning

The requirement for most of the learning in the unit to be collaborative was, at least

initially, difficult for some PSTs. PSTs responded well, however, to the peer discus-

sions which enabled a sharing of ideas and experiences, especially in relation to their

project planning and implementation. They were able to learn from the perspectives

and conceptual understandings of their peers and consequently broaden their own

understandings.

The different skills and theories that each of us brought into a discussion

helped each other … This made me feel better because I was able to

voice what things overwhelm me.

Group work has never been my forte, however this really worked and

I would like to see it continued into the future.

I like the idea of self directed learning and think it is important to our

learning that we are able to explore the nature of teaching and learning

individually.

Responses to learning and assessment tasks

Although the learning and assessment tasks were initially unfamiliar and prompted

some confusion and negative reactions, once PSTs were engaged in the project work,

they became more accepting of the new approaches, especially the school-based

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project. They were able to recognise the new skills that they had acquired through the

independent, self-directed nature of the learning tasks.

One of the turning points in regards to my learning in this unit was the

initial discussion of the project assignment. Initially I was anxious about

this assignment … but now think that it has been one of (if not the most)

meaningful work(s) I have completed at uni.

Our project … is a worthwhile task to undertake as it gets you to use ini-

tiative while working within the school community. Having to take the

steps to successfully implement the project is very beneficial for our

communication skills as we are dealing with the principle [sic], class-

room teachers and parents, all of which are the key to a successful teach-

ing career.

Once I began working on the project I found I was much more engaged

with the lectures.

DISCUSSION: CHANGING ATTITUDES TOWARDS

TEACHING AND LEARNING

PSTs descriptions of their attitudes towards teaching and learning (their personal

philosophies of teaching) also displayed a shift in their attitudes from first year where

they were more concerned with their own achievement of specific competencies

(Brandenburg and Ryan, 2001). That is, it shifted from a focus on themselves as

teachers, to a focus on the learning of their students. In the first year of their program,

PSTs had been reluctant to experiment with their own approaches to teaching and

learning, preferring to watch and learn from experienced teachers whom they

regarded as 'experts'. They were overly concerned with issues such as classroom

management and their mastery of 'competencies', including factors such as voice

projection and lesson closure. In their second year, they developed a more critical

approach to classroom practice, as well as their own practice. Their weekly discus-

sions displayed a deeper level of thinking and reflection, including discussion of the

consequences of their actions in the classroom and possible alternatives. Many

articulated a changing focus away from the classroom teacher and towards the chil-

dren and the learning environment, and a greater appreciation of the relevance of

theory to practice. They also reported a change in focus away from preoccupations

with the immediacy of the classroom and towards the possibilities for lifelong and

lifewide learning.

Examples of their descriptions of their philosophy of teaching were typically

identified as:

'Creating a diverse, inclusive learning environment for all students.'

'Catering for students'individual learning needs.'

'Being open to new ideas, concepts and teaching/learning approaches..'

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EXPLORING 'LIFEWIDE LEARNING'

202

'Having the passion and skills to develop an innovative and effective

classroom environment, conducive to learning.'

'Inspiring students to become life-long learners.'

Some individual examples were:

[My philosophy] is to be a person that embraces the opportunities given

to me and to enrich the lives of my students. I want to make learning fun,

interesting, accessible and flexible in delivery so that all learning styles

are accommodated. Teaching/learning encompasses all aspects of life,

so the classroom is only a minor part of the equation and learning can be

lifewide and lifelong. My endeavour will be to be flexible, approachable,

compassionate and most importantly to make education for my students

something they can build on for the rest of their lives and also open up

the world for them.

I want them to see me as someone who knows some of the answers, but

not all of them. I also want to be a teacher that other teachers respect,

and can come to for help with things they know I am good at.

My personal philosophy of teaching involves building strong links

between school, home and community. It is a philosophy that revolves

around enjoyment of learning in a variety of settings. I believe in the pro-

motion of learning for life, including all groups within society – being

catered for equally. Everyone has the right to learn. Learning should be

in context, it should be useful.

[My philosophy is] to be an effective communicator not only in the class-

room but in the school community as a whole as well, to inspire not only

learning but also life-skills, or to equip my charges with the necessary

knowledge and skill to successfully continue on beyond my direct influence.

CONCLUSION: 'NEW' APPROACHES BECOME THE 'NORM'

Although there was some initial resistance by PSTs in the first year of the unit to the

unfamiliar requirements and procedures of the unit, especially in relation to taking

responsibility for their own learning, the outcomes for these students in terms of their

learning were significant. They enthusiastically embraced and practised lifewide,

experiential approaches within their professional field experience work in schools.

Many PSTs reported that although the project was hard work, and they were initially

uneasy about the level of independence required, it was the most positive aspect of

the unit. Projects undertaken included tree plantings, paintings of murals,

walkathons, field trips, concerts, re-cycling programs, a school radio station, a salin-

ity project, a school 'frog bog', theme days and other community and school-based

projects. PSTs reported that there were high levels of engagement amongst children

during the conduct of the project and its associated activities. Many reported that it

was the most valuable learning experience that had had so far in the course. PSTs

JANETTE RYAN

overwhelmingly commented on the usefulness of the range of skills that they had

developed in designing and implementing their projects. Schools responded

positively to the projects carried out by PSTs, with many of the projects having

enduring benefits for the school.

Schools now eagerly anticipate the arrival of second year PSTs and look forward

to new projects, or the continuation of previous ones. In turn, PSTs in later years

report their sense of pride in seeing the continuing legacy of their efforts in schools.

Indeed, the program has to some extent become a victim of its own success as in

some instances when PSTs arrive in schools they can find that their mentors have

already decided on a potential project that they believe needs to be carried out in the

school. PSTs sometimes have to sensitively negotiate how they can meet the needs of

the school and the children while implementing their own ideas.

The intention, in relation to this program and the unit, was to provide a cohesive

program rather than a discrete collection of disconnected units, and to continue the

process of challenging the PSTs' perceptions about learning about teaching by

encouraging questioning, reflective responses. The discomfort with unfamiliar

methods and tasks reported by PSTs in the first year of the program has now given

way to an acceptance of such approaches as the 'norm' as later year PSTs report each

year to the new cohort on their projects in previous years and describe their experiences

and successes.

It is clear, however, that PSTs at least initially require substantial 'scaffolding'

when teaching and learning approaches and expectations are unfamiliar. Once PSTs

become familiar with these new approaches, they are able to confidently and enthu-

siastically appropriate them in their own teaching and learning philosophies and

approaches.

NOTE

Acknowledgement and thanks goes to Robyn Brandenburg in the School of Education at the University of

Ballarat for her early involvement in the program described in this chapter and previous collaborative

research in this area.

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JANETTE RYAN

INTRODUCTION

We need to have curriculum conversations, … get them talking in staff

meetings about how they adjust their pedagogies to get better results –

showing and mentoring the rest of us about how it can be done. To do so

we need to have a common vocabulary and framework for looking at and

talking about pedagogy. … We need … curriculum conversations about

what we did differently.

(Luke, 2002, pp. 9–10 emphasis added)

The centrality of teaching, the explication of what good teaching involves, and

the valuing of teachers' knowledge are recurrent themes at teacher education confer-

ences. Gore et al . (2001) argue that preparing teachers who can produce high quality

outcomes for all of their students requires teacher educators to give greater impor-

tance to what they do and say about good classroom practices; that is, what teachers

do, matters.

Australian teacher educators and teachers are become increasingly familiar with

the notion of Productive Pedagogies, itself the product of longitudinal research on

school reform recently undertaken in Queensland, Australia. More generally,

Government Departments of Education have begun to acknowledge the importance

if not its centrality, of good pedagogy for successful teaching.

In this chapter, the value of Productive Pedagogies as a meta-language for develop-

ing pre-service teachers' knowledge and understanding of teaching is examined;

whether it is a language that is not only intelligible but also efficacious for beginning

pre-service teachers or whether its dimensions and elements merely constitute another

isolated vocabulary.

The chapter first provides the background to the development of Productive

Pedagogies and reviews the research focussing on Productive Pedagogies in the training

of pre-service teachers. It outlines how the first year pre-service teachers were

introduced to the concepts of the pedagogical language of Productive Pedagogies,

while reflecting on the cultural capital of pre-service teachers and the implications of

a critical language for pre-service teachers with which they might be equipped to

read education, pedagogy and schooling. It concludes by analysing the students'

observations of teaching practice to ascertain if Productive Pedagogies' language is

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DAVID ZYNGIER

14. PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGIES: SEEKING

A COMMON VOCABULARY AND

FRAMEWORK FOR TALKING ABOUT

PEDAGOGY WITH PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 205–218.

206

not just useful in the development of pre-service teachers'understanding of teaching,

but whether this reconceptualisation of pedagogy can be efficaciously introduced to

first year students as Gore et al. (2001) conclude is necessary.

PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGIES

Productive Pedagogies is derived from the Queensland School Reform Longitudinal

Study (QSRLS) (Lingard et al ., 2001a, b); a 3-year intensive observation of

24 representative state primary and secondary schools, representing the largest and

most detailed school reform study in Australia, containing almost 500 pages of

perhaps the most exhaustive and important education research undertaken.

The study was concerned with how student learning, both academic and social,

could be enhanced. Its original contribution was to specify which aspects of teaching

require schools' urgent attention; the higher the level of intellectual demand expected

of students by teachers the greater the improved productive performance and, hence,

improved student outcomes (Lingard et al ., 2001a, pp. x–xv). The base assumption

of the research was that this enhancement required quality classroom teaching. The

QSRLS defines quality student outcomes in terms of a sustained and disciplined

inquiry focused on powerful, important ideas and concepts which are connected to

students' experiences and the world in which they live.

Quality learning experiences, what the QSRLS has termed productive pedagogies

is then crucial to improved student outcomes for all students, but in particular those

most 'at-risk' of failure; those from socially, culturally and economically disadvan-

taged conditions, who were the least likely to be exposed to intellectually challeng-

ing and relevant material (Lingard et al ., 2001b, pp. 103–5).

Productive Pedagogies in various forms has gained national recognition in Australia

as a framework for teacher professional development. Since 2001 there have been lim-

ited but significant contributions to this discussion focussing on Productive Pedagogies

in the education and training of pre-service teachers (Wilson and Klein, 2000;

Gore et al ., 2001; Sorin and Klein, 2002). Gore et al . (2001, p. 8), conclude that:

Productive Pedagogy needs to come early in the teacher education

program in order to be more fully integrated into students' knowledge

base for teaching. If it is just another framework, just another theory, just

another list, then students are likely to draw on it as they might any other

approach. Instead, if students are to treat Productive Pedagogies as

foundational to all of their efforts in teaching, it needs to be: (1) clearly

positioned in that way from the beginning of the teacher education pro-

gram; (2) used as a device to guide all aspects of the teacher education

curriculum; and (3) modeled in the pedagogy of teacher educators.

Luke adds that Productive Pedagogies is:

an approach to creating a place, space and vocabulary for us to get talking

about classroom instruction again. It isn't a magic formula (e.g., just

DAVID ZYNGIER

teach this way and it will solve all the kids' problems), but rather it's a

framework and vocabulary for staffroom, inservice, pre-service training,

for us to describe the various things we can do in classrooms – the various

options in our teaching 'repertoires' that we have – and how we can

adjust these, … to get different outcomes. This isn't a "one approach fits

all model of pedagogy". It has the possibility of providing a common

ground and dialogue between teachers, school administrators, teacher

educators, student-teachers and others … about which aspects of our

teaching repertoires work best for improved intellectual and social out-

comes for distinctive groups of kids.

(Luke, 2002, p. 4 emphasis added)

SETTING THE SCENE

In 2002, the first year primary pre-service teaching foundation studies at Monash

University (Peninsula Campus) included for the first time an introduction of the

concepts of Productive Pedagogies while students were experiencing first-hand

the incumbent pedagogies of in-service teachers during the fieldwork component of

the course. Two hundred students, including early childhood and primary bachelor of

education degree students, were exposed to this new conceptualisation of pedagogy

that suggests that there is no one correct pedagogy that will meet the needs of all

students in all sites of education.

As teacher educators, we wanted to know whether Productive Pedagogies is an

intelligible language for pre-service teachers in the context where its origins are in

the observations by experienced teachers of experienced practitioners. We wanted to

establish whether it is really possible for first year pre-service teachers – many coming

directly from their final year of secondary school – to make any sense of this new

language about professional practice.

Significant for us was the issue of "literacies" of pre-service teacher education

students raised by Zipin and Brennan (2001) in particular with reference to dominant

cultural capital (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990). The preservice teachers at Peninsula

Campus are increasingly often first generation students. Many are mature age,

converting from other jobs or upgrading qualifications to degree status, some with

children and part time jobs needed to provide for the family and/or themselves. A sig-

nificant proportion of our students may not have the required cultural capital brought

from their backgrounds (both home and school) which enable them with the kinds of

dominant knowledge practices on which university study generally relies (Zipin and

Brennan, 2001). About two thirds of the students are primary B.Ed. while the rest are

early childhood B.Ed. Most are of Anglo background, with a small number of older

first wave NESB students, as well as an increasing but even smaller number of

full-fee paying international students (most of Asian origin). Our task was to introduce

these students to a critical language of teaching (Zipin and Brennan, 2001). We also

found that many of our students lacked habits and capacities to read the world in terms

of a dominant and empowering cultural capital (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990) where

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208

'people's primary habitus or dispositions for being in the world are created through

engagement in practices seen as a normal part of their societal location in family and

early childhood' (Zipin and Brennan, 2001, p. 6). Like most other tertiary students,

pre-service teachers will not usually have been exposed to ideas that challenge a dom-

inant hegemony. With more teaching positions becoming available, it is likely that these

new teachers will be appointed to the most educationally disadvantaged areas. Zipin

and Brennan (2001) conclude that these new teachers will (unwittingly) be placed in

those areas where school pupils themselves do not come with strong backgrounds and

expectations of success and without intervention we continue a cycle of reproducing

critical illiteracy among pre-service teachers and in turn their future pupils. Our task,

through the critical language of Productive Pedagogies was to develop in our students

a consciousness that systemically, without overt acknowledgment, schools reproduce

social-positional inequality through all sorts of mechanisms that encode the privilege

of dominant cultural capital (Apple and Beane, 1999). This new language has:

the potential to interrupt schools'automatic privileging of some cultural

dispositions as high cultural capital, by broadening what counts as valu-

able and also providing access to those for whom different literacies are

not automatically available.

(Zipin and Brennan, 2001, p. 8)

While our primary focus was on the issue of pedagogy where the pre-service teachers

considered and critically reflected on repertoires of practice, we also were compelled

to critically reflect on our own pedagogy at a tertiary level as a modeled paradigm for

practice. Recent research in pre-service teacher education (Gore et al ., 2001, p. 7)

reinforces our view that the current priorities on generic teaching methods and

strategies, together with an emphasis on class and student behaviour management

and lesson planning is derived from a view of education as the transmission of relatively

unproblematic and fixed content' to our pre-service teachers.

Pre-service teachers, the research suggests (Wilson and Klein, 2000; Gore et al .,

2001; Cherednichenko and Kruger, 2002; Sorin and Klein, 2002), want practical

activities, lesson ideas and resources that they can use in the classroom and spend

much of their time at the level of "just tell me how … !". We set out to challenge the

notion that learning to teach is a lock-step process, addressing the 'preconceptions

and dominant discourses in teacher education' (Gore et al ., 2001, p. 7) in order to

restore theory or belief as central. Gore et al . (2001) conclude that there is strong

evidence that pre-service teachers highly value the concept of Productive Pedagogies

as a framework to guide teaching and as the basis for their future work. We wanted to

know whether this too would be the case for our students, whether they would

conclude 'that pedagogy matters; not only regarding what is learned but perhaps

more importantly how'it is learned (Wilson and Klein, 2000, p. 1).

Engaging our first year students in a substantive conversation, about the how of

pedagogy in the classroom through intellectually challenging material, was based on

the assumption that they can learn this even before they've learnt the most basic

tricks of the trade.

DAVID ZYNGIER

What was taught – what was learned?

As part of their foundation studies, we introduced the students to the four dimensions of

Productive Pedagogies and the elements within each of those. The four dimensions

of productive pedagogies are:

●intellectual quality

●connectedness

●supportive classroom environment

●recognition of difference.

In presenting this material to the students, we became aware that for some students

the connections between the dimensions, between the elements within these dimensions

and across dimensions was not made explicit by the productive pedagogies course

material, the various reports, the Education Queensland website and other available

material on productive pedagogies.

This became an issue for us when students asked us 'if I'm teaching a lesson,

should all dimensions of productive pedagogies be evident in my lesson?' We

decided as a group that this was probably unreasonable to expect of any one lesson.

However, over a period of lessons they might expect to see each of those dimensions

evident. The QSRLS states that productive pedagogies is not a formula to follow and

one would not expect these elements to be seen every time, all the time in every lesson,

nor would they be used in the same way in different settings with different students

(Lingard et al ., 2001b, pp. 113–4). The QSRLS suggests that not every dimension is

equally required for success for all socio-cultural groups. In other words, it is quite

tenable that only one, two or three dimensions would be sufficient for some groups

of students, but not all (Lingard et al., 2001b, p. 3). It states categorically:

… that whilst a number of the elements within each dimension should be

present in classrooms at all times, there are instances in certain contexts

and stages within a sequence of lessons that some elements might be

more appropriate than others.

(Lingard et al ., 2001b, p. 135)

While each of the dimensions is readily defined on ideal grounds, there is no research

basis for believing that school systems (anywhere) have been overly successful in

consistently providing high levels of all four dimensions to large proportions of

school students (Zyngier and Gale, 2003).

The research literature demonstrates that where teachers have mechanistically

applied Productive Pedagogies, it has become a 'shiny object which teachers desire

to utilise in classroom practice [only to] lose its lustre as a new and more desirable

method comes along' (Loughland and Reid, 2002, p. 1).

The four dimensions problematised

We sought to convey to our pre-service teachers that our interpretation of Productive

Pedagogies certainly does not try to replace one hegemony with another. Rather,

our understanding of productive pedagogies is that it offers a counter-hegemony

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210

(Giroux, 1990), which is cognisant and inclusive of the viewpoints of the most

marginalized learners. At the same time, we suggested that all students must acquire

the requisite abstract and analytical knowledge if they are to have access to the

dominant cultural capital of society [typified by the instructional video Good Morning

Miss Toliver (1992)] (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1990; Giroux, 1990; Shor, 1996; Apple

and Beane, 1999; Teese and Polesel, 2003).

The assignment task

All students in the unit were required to observe in-service teachers taking at least

four lessons. In these observations, students were asked to use the dimensions of

Productive Pedagogies to describe and analyse what they observed in the lesson, and

critique their observations detailing the extent to which those dimensions and

elements were evident (or absent) through annotated examples describing the situa-

tions how they were employed by the observed teacher and enacted by the student(s).

Finally they were to conclude what their analysis might mean for teachers in general

and for their own future as a teacher in particular. Most of the students were able to

complete the set tasks to a high level in academic terms.

The remainder of the chapter focuses on the written responses of the students,

(fictitiously named Bob, Carol, Ted and Alice from the 2002 cohort and Anna,

Simon, Mary and Jasmine from 2003 in order to differentiate between the 8 students'

work) and selected to see how appropriately they were able to use the concepts of

Productive Pedagogies to discuss their observations of teaching practice. We weren't

so much interested in whether they were accurate representations of the teachers'

practices because we don't know actually what transpired in the classroom but to get

their views of what happened.

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS' VIEWS ON PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGIES

The questions that guided our analysis of the students' assignments included:

●what were the things that were paramount in their minds when they went looking?

●(what kind of things did students identify as either being present or absent?

●how did pre-service teachers understand the relationships between dimensions

and elements of productive pedagogies and

●how might this compare with Gore et al.'s (2001) conclusions (see above) about

their research with their fourth year pre-service teachers?

This analysis of the very rich material presented by the pre-service teachers only

looks at the language and vocabulary used. No attempt has been made to further

deconstruct what they are saying about their understandings of Productive Pedagogies

as a basis for pre-service teacher education. Clearly this remains to be done.

What were the things that were paramount

in their minds when they went looking?

Jasmine writes that 'despite initial doubt about whether [Productive Pedagogies] would

be apparent [in the Early Childhood Centre] I see that there are ample examples. … I

have also realised that no amount of theory can compare with looking for and

DAVID ZYNGIER

analysing … on placement.' Further she observed that 'children can demonstrate that

they realize there are underlying principles behind the activities they do when they

explicitly take the concept from one activity and try to apply it to a different situation.'

Rejecting the "just tell me how" approach Simon states that:

… as a teacher I needed to recognise the importance of always providing

an atmosphere of "real" learning. For a student, learning should not just

be absorbing information delivered to them, but rather teaching should

facilitate the student's own abilities to create their own real and relevant

understandings.

Mary agreed that 'not all Productive Pedagogies dimensions will necessarily be

included in each lesson, but should be seen as integral aspects of an overall philosophy

towards the classroom discourse.' Agreeing that recognition and engagement with

difference is the most significant explanation both theoretically and practically for

academic achievement of at risk students, Mary states that 'Productive Pedagogies

has proved vital to my understanding of an inclusive school environment – that

fairness is not necessarily achieved by treating everyone in the same way.' Anna

suggests that Productive Pedagogies 'allowed children to challenge their personal

ideologies, while exploring others'and that 'rather than checking a list teachers will

use it as an implementation of their beliefs.'

What elements and relationships did students

identify as being present?

Clearly the students readily and successfully identified the dimensions and the relevant

elements as being present. Commenting on her observations on the dimension of

Intellectual Quality, Carol commented about the lesson she observed that:

… students display deep knowledge regarding when they establish and

form relatively complex connections between the central topic and tasks at

hand … where students are required to … discover the relationship … , to

display their understanding and required students to manipulate informa-

tion and ideas in ways that transform their meanings. … allow them to be

able to construct explanations for their procedures and draw conclusions

on what they have done and why.

While Ted found that 'encouraging students to make links … and divergent thinking

to take place developed higher order thinking', he also points out the links between

dimensions such as 'complex interactions, incorporating knowledge and understand-

ings from previous topics, … from books they had read and television programs they

watch, contributed substantial and valuable knowledge to the discussion' as not just

deep knowledge and deep understandings but connected to the lives of the children

outside of the school. Further, Carol commented that:

… substantive conversation occurred when the teacher and students

interacted to develop a brainstormed list of relevant … words … and

when the students discussed words with the neighbouring person and

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212

finally when the students had to speak to the person correcting their work.

Meta-language [was] evident when the teacher explores how language

can be used in different circumstances … and for different purposes, …

cover[ing] meaning structures … , how sentences work, … [all] are

solid indications of meta-language within the lesson.

Jasmine observed 'a boy who grouped the building blocks by colour. … [while other]

children bit pieces out of their bread so they represented people and cars.' She

observes that 'these children have discovered that blocks and bread can have more

than one meaning.'

Although observing for intellectual quality, Alice noted that she 'included the

other three dimensions where I could see an outstanding inclusion or exclusion

of … teaching'. Alice observed that 'for many children being able to share ideas and

discuss their thinking and how they think with their peers is not as threatening as

checking with the teacher', noting 'how important interaction between peers is to the

learning process.'She observed that the types of 'discussion that occurred encouraged

and pretty much required the children to think below the surface level … pushing to a

deeper level, … deepening their knowledge and understanding.'

Commenting on recognition and engagement with difference Alice notes the links

to Supportive Learning Environment such that:

… the lessons were structured in such a way that the students were pretty

much in control of their own learning development … exhibiting student

direction because they had some control over what they were learning, …

providing the examples (even if the teachers were fishing for them).

This, she suggests, exemplifies academic engagement because the:

… children were attentive, they showed genuine enthusiasm … asked

questions, contributed to the discussion, helped out their peers … to try

and do things that they may not have had to consider before.

Adopting a critical and reflexive language, Alice relates that some students noted that

'knowledge is constructed and that there can be multiple view points which can contrast

and potentially conflict … [but] the fact that the children could directly connect the

examples and improvements to their own work demonstrated that they understood the

task, that there was a connection to the children's world.'Similarly, Mary writes that:

… the teacher used the occasion of a Maori boy's birthday to discuss

counting in another language … I saw this as evidence of the teacher

acknowledging the value of diverse cultures within the group as the stu-

dent was happy to demonstrate his knowledge of Maori.

Ted notes as an example of knowledge being problematic that 'the teacher explained

that there could be many ideas and points of view, each with merit and as a class we

need to listen to everyone and understand that there is "no one view or right

DAVID ZYNGIER

answer" '. Reflecting on his own ideas, Ted writes that:

I [now] recognize that a supportive classroom environment is more than a

place where the walls are brightly coloured, and students' work is promi-

nently displayed, [but] … a classroom where children's learning was

encouraged in a supportive non-threatening environment, … when students

looked confused the teacher re-read a page to emphasise words or concepts

and then asked open-ended questions … foster[ing] an atmosphere of

mutual respect, trust and support between the teacher and the students.'

What was missing?

Not only could the pre-service teachers identify and talk about elements of

Productive Pedagogies that they observed, they were also able to discuss the implica-

tions of missing elements. Carol writes that:

Knowledge as problematic … was an element that was hard to detect. [It]

involves an understanding that knowledge is something constructed and

developed by learners and is fixed around a body of information.

[Although] the actual lesson was based around a central body of informa-

tion supporting knowledge as problematic, it wasn't constructed or devel-

oped by the learners. The teacher was the source of the development …

Demonstrating a clear understanding, Carol goes on to suggest how she might have

used the same exercise but:

… let the children choose the words and the tasks they must perform with

those words … and depending on the words selected could also cover the

knowledge being subjected to political, social and cultural

implications … I would give the students the opportunity to construct

their own learning and base [this] around their ideas.

Ted also noted that although 'the element of metalanguage was missing [in the lesson

he observed] it could easily have been incorporated by the teacher … drawing atten-

tion to the words, ideas and actions … when they were using higher order thinking.

All the students were able to suggest how they might have modified the lessons to

incorporate the various elements so that the 'missing element could have enriched

and empowered the children's … understanding.'

CONCLUSION

What can we conclude about the value of Productive Pedagogies as a meta-language

for developing pre-service teachers' knowledge and understanding of teaching? Is it

an intelligible and efficacious language for first year pre-service teachers who have

not been exposed to any prior teacher knowledge or do its dimensions and elements

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214

merely constitute an isolated vocabulary, another framework, theory or just a shiny

object? (Loughland and Reid, 2002, p. 1).

Carol understands the difficulties in and the requirement to not necessarily include

each dimension and its related elements in every lesson and stated that however:

… it is easy to see that incorporating every element of each dimension

requires a long, researched plan when constructing lessons. Much more

than I previously imagined. [By] taking your time to think about the

purpose and aim of your lesson, you can include each element even if it

is only for a short time or minimal level. [But] by doing so you are

providing the students in your class with the best opportunity to develop

each of the elements.

On the other hand does Anna only see Productive Pedagogies as another (important)

strategy that can easily be incorporated into every lesson?

It is important for teachers to have access to tools such as Productive

Pedagogies to understand that effective learning can take place …

Productive Pedagogies would be an inherent and natural part of good

teachers'lessons – an essential tool which can be largely integrated into

any lesson.

Bob comments that his analysis positively affected himself 'as a teacher … giv[ing me]

a perspective on the qualitative practices in the classroom.' Perspicuously, he

adds that:

… some teachers may not live by the "Productive Pedagogies bible", but

their ways of teaching and enthusiasm towards teaching bring out the

element of good teaching from the Productive Pedagogies set regardless.

I have realized why some or most children don't like to or can't handle

mathematics … it doesn't have any connection in their daily

lives … unless the knowledge can be used in their world outside of [the

world of] school.

The observation and analysis task of productive pedagogies gave our students the

opportunity to engage in substantive conversation about their own learning and the

teaching of their supervising teachers. It provided them with deep knowledge, deep

understanding and with a meta-language 'to stand back and reflect on the things that

we do'(Loughland and Reid, 2002, p. 1). It allowed the pre-service teachers to construct

and deconstruct classroom learning situations while promoting higher order thinking.

For example Mary writes that [this]

… analysis of a classroom discourse heightened my awareness of the

value of Productive Pedagogies for me as a pre-service teacher and life

long learner … I was able to see the importance of how the teacher

conducts the lesson as just as important as the content. … The importance

of continually questioning and reflecting upon the motivation underlying

DAVID ZYNGIER

my pedagogy. … . Have I created a challenging, inclusive, relevant

supportive and engaging environment?

Without the meta-language of productive pedagogies our pre-service teachers may

have been confined to mere observation of what was obvious to them in the class-

rooms they visited, without being able to critically read what it was that actually was

taking place between the teacher and the learner(s). Without the language of

Productive Pedagogies, the pre-service teachers perhaps would never have been able

to articulate so clearly what in fact was missing from their observed lessons.

Quoting Gore et al. (2001) Simon explains that their results showed that:

… pre-service teachers believed [certain elements] were restricted in

their use by the age of the children and subject content and that

Productive Pedagogies as a whole was linked to teaching strategies … it

is important to recognise that Productive Pedagogies as a whole should

be encompassed in all areas of teaching and learning. Productive

Pedagogies should not be viewed as a pick and choose smorgasbord of

teaching content and strategies. The evidence of Productive Pedagogies

within a classroom is evidence of good teaching and learning.

Some of our students' response to Productive Pedagogies was on the level of a shiny

new object or formula for good teaching ("just tell us how do we do this") and is

mirrored in the misconception among practicing teachers and many teacher educators

that Productive Pedagogies is merely another instrument or framework to be applied

as writ (Loughland and Reid, 2002). Hence Bob concludes that 'I see Productive

Pedagogies as an important teaching aid that enriches student learning and makes

teaching a more satisfying and fulfilling profession (emphasis added).

Moreover, there remained a view, at least among some of the pre-service teachers

studied, that it is in fact necessary to include all the dimensions and all of the elements

of each dimension in every learning experience. Ted writes in conclusion that:

… all the elements of Productive Pedagogies … were not evident in this

lesson, possibly because the teacher was unaware of Productive

Pedagogies and the elements they contain … I believe with some planning

and reflection it is possible to apply all the elements.

Alice comes to a similar view that:

… when Productive Pedagogies are taken into consideration at the plan-

ning stage, the likelihood of a more effective learning experience for

students is greatly increased … [and] that by structuring lessons in

accordance with the Productive Pedagogies it enables teachers to be very

much in tune with their students.

Ted reflecting on pedagogy as problematic concludes that:

I am still coming to terms with the theory of Productive Pedagogies –

[although] it has taken me thirteen weeks to fully appreciate them, I find

215

PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGIES

216

myself on unfamiliar ground. … The challenge is how to apply

them … At present they are like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle and … I

find it difficult to make the "big picture". As a first year student teacher

I acknowledge my limited understanding and knowledge of teaching, I

am now beginning to understand that the elements of Productive

Pedagogies just don't magically appear in a lesson. … The responsibility

lies squarely with the teacher to make a difference to student learning.

This introduction to Productive Pedagogies did produce results that seemed to be

quite outstanding compared to our previous experiences of trying to introduce

first year teachers to pedagogy. The pre-service teachers studied here confirm the

conclusions of the QSRLS, that Productive Pedagogies is not something new or

groundbreaking, but the identification and expression through the use of a vocabu-

lary and language to describe what good teachers have always been doing in their

classes with their students. Productive Pedagogies is we believe 'more than just a

vernacular knowledge of teaching made formal … but a language for reflecting on

their practice' (Loughland and Reid, 2002, p. 1).

These pre-service teachers were able to utilize the vocabulary of Productive

Pedagogies to successfully describe their observations in the discursive language of

Productive Pedagogies, as a powerfully reflexive and generative language that

provided them ways to talk about what was and wasn't there in the classrooms

observed. In our view, these students were engaged themselves in a powerful, and

empowering substantive conversation about pedagogy. Productive Pedagogies was

perceived by them as compatible with all levels, teaching styles and content, even in

the early childhood centre. These pre-service teachers may indeed as Gore et al .

(2001) conclude, be better equipped to make learning and teaching more connected

to the real world than teachers with years of experience.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the support, assistance and advice of Ass Prof. Trevor Gale Faculty of

Education, Monash University in the writing of this paper. Dr. Gale began the teaching of this course in

2002 and I was privileged to work with him on the course in 2003. This chapter is based on our paper

presented to the ICET Conference 2003.

REFERENCES

Apple, M. and Beane, J. (1999) Democratic Schools: Lessons from the Chalk Face. Buckingham: Open

University Press.

Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. (1990) Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture (2nd edition) London:

Routledge.

Cherednichenko, B. and Kruger, T. (2002) Those Who Can, Do! Teacher Education as an Act of Personal

and Institutional Reflexivity. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in

Education, Brisbane.

Giroux, H. A. (1990) Curriculum Discourse as Postmodernist Critical Practice. Geelong, Vic.: Deakin

University.

DAVID ZYNGIER

Gore, J. M., Griffiths, T., and Ladwig, J. G. (2001) Productive Pedagogy as a Framework for Teacher

Education: Towards Better Teaching. Paper presented at the AARE, Perth.

Lingard, B., Ladwig, J., Mills, M., Bahr, M., Chant, D, Warry, M, Ailwood, J, Capeness, R, Christie, P,

Gore, J, Hayes, D & Luke, A. (2001a) Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study: Final

report, vol.1, Report prepared for Education Queensland by the School of Education, The

University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Lingard, B, Ladwig, J, Mills, M, Bahr, M, Chant, D, Warry, M, Ailwood, J, Capeness, R, Christie, P, Gore,

J, Hayes, D & Luke, A. (2001b) Queensland School Reform Longitudinal Study: Supplementary

Materials, Report prepared for Education Queensland by the School of Education, The University

of Queensland, Brisbane.

Loughland, T. and Reid, J. (2002) A Language for Practice: Becoming Explicit About Teaching and

Learning. Paper presented at the Australian Teaching Education Association, Sydney.

Luke, A. (2002) Education 2010 and New Times: Why Equity and Social Justice Still Matter, But

Differently, Education Queensland, viewed July 12 2003, http://vision.cangoul.catholic.edu.au/

teaching/tf/readings/ed2010.pdf.

Shor, I. (1996) When Students have Power: Negotiating Authority in a Critical Pedagogy. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Sorin, R. and Klein, M. (2002) 'Walking the Walk and Talking the Talk: Adequate Teacher Preparation in

these Uncertain Times?' Paper presented to AARE, Brisbane, Australia.

Teese, R. V. and Polesel, J. (2003) Undemocratic Schooling: Equity and Quality in mass secondary

education in Australia. Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Publishing.

Wilson, E. and Klein, M. (2000) Promoting Productive Pedagogies: Preservice Teacher Education for

New Times in Queensland State Schools. Paper presented at the AARE Annual Conference, Perth.

Zipin, L. and Brennan, M. (2001) 'Cultural Capital and the Literacy Needs of a New Generation of

pre-service Teachers'. Paper presented to Australian Curriculum Studies Association National

Biennial Conference, Canberra.

Zyngier, D. and Gale, T. (2003) Non-Systemic and Non-Traditional Educational Programs in FMP

Secondary Schools: Final Report. Frankston: Frankston Mornington Peninsula Local Learning

Employment Network.

217

PRODUCTIVE PEDAGOGIES

INTRODUCTION

Teacher candidates (student teachers) have a long history of struggling to perform

their lessons well, that is, to look teacherly and hope that children remain quiet for the

duration of their lesson. Although faculty in higher education, along with their coun-

terpart teachers who mentor teacher candidates, would like to have their protégés

understand the importance of impacting children in a positive way, a disconnect

exists in that teacher candidates perseverate on "How did I do?" rather than "What

did the students learn?" during clinical practice.

An experimental restructuring of the field placement component for a group of

education majors at a small private college shifts the focus from teacher candidates

"performing" their lessons, to their impact on young learners. The sine qua non of

this program is the pairing of teacher candidates with selected underachieving children

and having them participate in Collaborative Action Research. Teacher candidates'

one-on-one teaching encounters with children proved to provide a multitude of

educational opportunities for both the candidates and students. Results of this part-

nership surpassed all participants' expectations. Not only did the teacher candidates

positively impact children's achievement, a central goal of The No Child Left Behind

Act, but the experience generated relevant and exciting "real world" material for the

teacher candidates' reflection, study and refinement under the guidance of professors

and school-based practitioners. Evidence of the success of this program included: a

measurable impact on children's skill development; changes in teacher candidates'

dispositions toward children, teaching and their own learning; significant support for

the program by teachers and administrators and a rich and motivational skills-building

experience for teachers in training. The results were documented – a constant challenge

to Professional Development School partnership work (Teitel, 2001) – and the design

can be exported to other schools whose programs have similar goals.

BACKGROUND

The Read to Achieve program, discussed in this chapter, grew out of a public elementary

School Improvement Team's efforts to renew their annual School Improvement Plan

219

ROBERT P. PELTON

15. FROM PERFORMING TO PERFORMANCE:

CAN THE REPOSITIONING OF TEACHER

CANDIDATES CREATE A MEASURABLE IMPACT

ON CHILDREN'S ACHIEVEMENT WHILE DEVELOPING

POSITIVE TEACHING DISPOSITIONS?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 219–228.

220

and target the issue of reducing the literacy gap for under achieving children. Joining

the parents, teachers, administrators and community members on the team was a pro-

fessor from a local college's teacher preparation program. The team analyzed past

student assessment scores and noted that, on the whole, students demonstrated steady

improvement over the years, but there was a consistent gap between African

American male students' reading scores and their peers.

The obvious solution, providing remedial services by expanding an existing tutoring

program, proved unworkable due to budget constraints. The education professor

suggested that teacher candidates could provide high quality one-on-one tutoring for

children needing remedial skills development. Research suggests that the achieve-

ment gap between poor and minority students and other students would disappear if

all students received high-quality teaching (Haycock, 1998). Teacher candidates,

who are trained in the delivery of the most recent research-based reading instruction

strategies supported by the National Reading Panel, represent an untapped resource

to school programs. Though untested, the idea quickly gained the support of the team

members who realized that the teacher candidates, with the support of their college

professors and the in-service classroom teachers, could create a high quality learning

experience for both teacher candidates and underachieving students. Out of this, the

Read to Achieve Program was born.

ACTION RESEARCH AND THE PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT SCHOOL MODEL

A child's success in both school and in life is dependent upon his ability to read

(Northrup, 2000). Therefore, every resource in and around our schools must be

focused on this goal. A Professional Development School (PDS) partnership between

a public school and a College of Education is the ideal climate to address this issue

because its relationship defines itself according to its stakeholders' needs. This concept,

school and college partnerships, is nearly a century old (Kaplan and Owings, 2001),

and the contemporary PDS is, or should be, symbiotic (Sirotnik and Goodlad, 1988).

The PDS model provides opportunities for teachers and administrators to influence

the development of their profession and for college faculty to increase the professional

relevance of their work (The Holmes Group, 1986). The resulting effort can be an

increase in teacher quality and an impressive impact on student achievement. In the

Baltimore County School System in Maryland, the PDS movement is gaining

strength and providing measurable results (Neubert and Binko, 1998). PDSs are an

untapped resource that can have an immediate and measurable effect on increasing

the academic performance of children.

As the Read to Achieve Program unfolded as a Professional Development School

initiative, the college professor guided the teachers and students through an Action

Research Model of applied inquiry (Teitel and DelPrete, 1995). The program was

based upon two goals. First, guiding teacher candidates into becoming high quality

teachers and second, improving the skills and the educational achievement of children.

The reflective process of Action Research has proven to be very effective when used

ROBERT P. PELTON

to address school renewal and teacher research (Sagor, 1992; Calhoun, 1993). It is

apparent that with the increasing emphasis and student test scores and its linkage to

practice, educators are quickly becoming "teacher researchers" in their own classroom.

For these reasons, teacher training programs must include reflective practice,

whereby action informs understanding and understanding assists action. Experience in

this type of work is very powerful to teachers in training, because the locus of control

for their own learning is in their hands, not solely in that of their professors. Further,

within this model, teacher candidates have the opportunity to apply what they have

learned in their college coursework in a constructivist milieu. Through this process,

the learners [teacher candidates] can make sense of teaching experiences in terms of

their existing understanding. In an active process, teacher candidates construct mean-

ingful teaching practices by linking new ideas with their existing knowledge (Naylor

and Keogh, 1999). As teacher candidates move between campus and field placement,

they are able to use their knowledge and insight to implement refinements to their

teaching. This practice enables the teacher candidates to see how the theory they

learn has applicability in real world teaching experiences. They begin to understand

why, in methods courses on campus, professors emphasized knowledge, best practices,

inquiry and reflection. At the school-site, their mentor teachers use their experience

to help the teacher candidates implement their understanding of children and learn-

ing theory to the real-world environment. By helping students create this type of con-

nection between theory and practice in education, they reciprocally inform and

strengthen each other (Sirotnik and Goodlad, 1988). As a result, the teacher preparation

program becomes a real, rather than an ersatz, constructivist learning milieu. In this

environment, teacher candidates are being prepared to enter the field as high quality

teachers, prepared to impact children's ability to achieve, with an understanding of the

difference between plans for teaching and designs for learning.

President Bush's No Child Left Behind Act requires schools to make ade-

quate yearly progress and prepare all children to be able to achieve at

proficient levels of performance. It also allocates federal dollars to effec-

tive programs and practices. This increased accountability for student

performance and of teacher quality requires research-based practice

that can provide immediate results. Teacher training programs must

respond quickly by preparing their graduates accordingly. Participatory

Action Research enables teacher candidates to understand the connec-

tion between teaching and learning. It also provides a platform to docu-

ment their results.

FROM TUTOR TO TEACHER: FROM PEDAGOGY TO PRACTICE

We have seen the impact of programs such as America Reads, where minimally

trained college students can have a positive impact on helping at-risk children learn

to read better (Fitzgerald, 2001). This type of intimate learning experience has proven

to be an effective form of instruction and a viable solution to preventing reading

failure (Pikulski, 1994; Wasik, 1998). Teachers in training not only have a desire to

221

FROM PERFORMING TO PERFORMANCE

222

work with children, but they are in the unique position of having mentoring support

as they develop their teaching competencies.

In the Read to Achieve Program, under the guidance of professors and school-based

faculty, teacher candidates implement one-on-one skill development sessions in an

informed and structured approach while participating in their own Action Research.

Through this process, they employed experiential and reflective strategies, creating

feedback loops in which they learned from the evolutionary process of their teacher

research. According to Vygtosky (1978), an early proponent of constructivism, learning

takes place as a continual interplay between the individual and others in the zone of

proximal development (ZPD). He defined "proximal development" as the intellectual

potential of an individual when provided with assistance from a knowledgeable person

(Vygotsky, 1978). Teacher candidates in the PDS model become self informed about

their impact on children because their training was reflective in nature, guided from

knowledgeable professors and school-based practioners, and had applicability for

them, in real world settings. It has become common knowledge that the ability to

reflect is essential to learning (Lambert and McCombs, 1998).

In preparation for their clinical practice, teacher candidates take a variety of

education methods courses on campus and study constructivist learning theory and

how it manifests in practice. Constructivism, as noted by Ernest (1995), underlies

classroom practice that supports the student in developing knowledge from both the

guidance of the teacher and the interaction with the experiential world. Further

preparation of teacher candidates included a workshop on effective tutoring and

strategies to help children identify books that they find interesting or "motivating."

The school's reading specialist conducted this workshop. The concept and the model

of the workshop were designed collaboratively; the college professor contributed the

educational theory and 'best practices' as found in leading instructional research, and

the local school reading specialist contributed the effective strategies gleaned from

her training, but more importantly, her real student experiences. These parallel models

enabled teacher candidates to witness and experience, first hand, the direct relationship

between theory and practice. Thus, teacher candidates had the chance to apply, as

constructivist learners, within the confines of a real school experience, theories and

best practices learned previously only through books and lectures in college course-

work. The value of this model is that it improves, simultaneously, teacher practice

and teacher preparation and brings to children the most relevant and effective teach-

ing strategies. This gives teacher candidates the background to enter the field with a

depth of experience in personalizing education that makes them "high quality"

teachers. Teacher candidates also witness first hand the positive effect of the colle-

giality between institutions.

COLLABORATIVE ACTION RESEARCH AT WORK

The Read to Achieve Program's evaluation design is an integral part of the program's

implementation. A model of Collaborative Action Research (Calhoun, 1993) was

implemented, to maximize the school-college partnership assets. This type of

ROBERT P. PELTON

teacher-researcher model is cyclical in nature and cultivates reflective and thoughtful

practice. Action Research is a deliberate, solution-oriented method of inquiry, which

includes problem identification, systematic data collection, reflection, analysis, data-

driven action, and the re-identification of the problem to assess the substance and

sustainability of an intervention or strategy (see Figure 15.1).

As part of the process, both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.

Twenty students, from third and fifth grades, and ten teacher candidates participated

223

FROM PERFORMING TO PERFORMANCE

Figure 15.1. The Action Research model used in the study

Problem identification

Data collection

Action research

Teacher candidates work

directly with children

collect and

analyze data

Reflective practitioner

Re-Identification

Problem

Practical knowledge

of children

mentor support

from practitioners

Theory and pedagogy

mentor support from

college prep program

224

in the study. Student selection was based on the reading achievement gap identified

via disaggregated State assessment test results. All of the children in the study were

African American males.

Three sources of data were examined. The first source of data came from pre-post

STAR Reading assessments. The STAR Reading Assessment, a computerized adaptive

test, was individually administered to the entire group of twenty students. The term

'Adaptive,' in this assessment, refers to the design that the difficulty level of subse-

quent questions depends upon the correctness of the student's response to previous

questions. Based on the responses to 25 questions, the program provides a student's

Scaled Score. The Scaled Score is the most fundamental score produced by STAR. All

other scores – Grade Equivalency, Percentile Ranking, Normal Curve Equivalency

and Instructional Reading Level are derived from the Scaled Score.

A careful review of students' pre-test scores on the STAR demonstrated that two

nearly identical subgroups could be formed based on students' aptitude. One group

was identified to receive tutoring service, the experimental group (N 10); the sec-

ond group was assigned as a control group (N 10) and was designated not to

receive services.

The group receiving services was chosen by means of a coin toss. The ten children

in the experimental group received individual and personalized tutoring sessions

facilitated by teacher candidates. The tutoring sessions were scheduled for one forty-

five minute period per week for eight-weeks.

The second source of data came from small group interviews and semi-structured

focus groups with parents and teacher candidates. The third and final source of data

was a survey distributed to the teachers of the candidates in training. This survey was

conducted after the intervention. The goal of this survey was to gain the perspective

of veteran teachers on questions related to the substance and sustainability of the

Read to Achieve program.

RESULTS

The School Improvement Team (SIT) decided that a comparison of Pre-post Grade

Equivalencies (GE) determined by the STAR would provide a clear and meaningful

measurement of student growth. GEs signify how a student's test performance com-

pares with that of other students nationally. For example, if a 5th-grade student has a

GE of 7.6, his score is equal to that of a typical 7th grader after the sixth month of the

school year. This score does not mean, necessarily, that the student is capable of read-

ing 7th grade material. It does indicate that his or her reading skills are well above

average. The pre to post Grade Equivalencies (GE) of the tutored students improved

by over a half Grade Equivalency (.5) during the eight-week period. Additionally, the

GE of the experimental group was shown to outperform that of the control group GE

by 63% (see Figure 15.2).

The data associated with the Teacher Satisfaction Survey (Table 15.1) show clear

and certain support of the effects of the Read to Achieve program. There was a 100%

response rate of this survey, eighteen teachers participating. As can be seen by the

ROBERT P. PELTON

response to question three, "Field placement students build teaching competencies

by implementing Action Research with children" and question two, "Conducting

Collaborative Action Research is an appropriate use of field placement students'

time," 55% of the teachers Strongly Agreed, while 45 percent Agreed. If there was

225

FROM PERFORMING TO PERFORMANCE

Figure 15.2. Improvement in reading over the 8 week period

Average Gain (Grade Equivelency)

0.5

1.5

Experimental Group Control Group

TABLE 15.1 Teacher satisfaction survey

Question Number Number Number Number Number

Disagree Strongly Agree Unsure Disagree Strongly

Agree

Q1. VCJ field placement students have a

positive impact on the children they

tutor. 9 8 1

Q2. Conducting Collaborative Action

Research is an appropriate use of field

placement students' time. 10 9

Q3. Field placement students build teaching

competencies by implementing Action

Action Research with children. 10 9

Q4. Field placement students should conduct

Action Research in subjects other than

reading. 10 6 3 1

Q5. Children participating in the program

look forward to their tutoring session. 8 4 6

Q6. The VJC/Cedarmere Collaborative

Action Research should be continued. 11 8 1

Q7. VJC students benefit by conducting

Action Research students. 11 7 1

Q8. Children benefit by VJC students

tutoring them. 12 7

226

any doubt as to how this program is embraced among teachers in the school,

Question 6, "The VJC/Cedarmere Collaborative Action Research should be

continued ", receiving a 94% positive response rate, corroborates teacher support.

Further data elucidated from the Teacher Satisfaction Survey verifies the positive

impact on children of the Read to Achieve Program. Not only did 94% of the teachers

report that their children benefit by having the college students tutor them, but the

response to question 4, "Field placement students should conduct Action Research in

subjects other than reading," reveals that a majority of teachers would like to see Action

Research more widespread, impacting children with needs in other areas as well.

In addition to the Teachers'surveyed, parents and tutors provided impressive anec-

dotal evidence that continued to confirm the positive impact on children of the Read

to Achieve program. In focus groups conducted throughout the implementation of

the program, parents enthusiastically reported statements such as, "My child wants to

read more", "My son seems more confident in general, as well as in his ability to

read", and "Prior to this program, I didn't know what my son liked to read." These

testimonials are particularly impressive as the parents, in an orientation meeting held

with school and college staff prior to the program's implementation, had been skeptical

of the new, untried model and concerned that it might stigmatize their children. The

anecdotal records reveal that parents no longer held these concerns after their

children participated in the program.

The teacher candidates/tutors' statements were particularly impressive: "I was able

to interact with parents, and so I could better understand and help the student;" "I felt

as if I were really teaching and making a difference", "This is so much better than

preparing sample lesson plans in my coursework", and, "I felt as if I were really

teaching someone. This is very different than preparing and performing lessons." The

tutors are excited about the benefits to them as future teachers, and, by extension, to

their present and future students. As one tutor said, and others agreed, "all of us in this

Professional Development School now not only understand, intellectually, theories and

strategies, we can apply them so that students are really learning." The teacher

candidates noted that they became more and more effective in applying personalized

instructional strategies to students' learning because they had both their college

professor, who worked closely with them in their course work and in the field, and the

classroom teachers who provided practical insight and treated them as part of

the school community.

It became clear to all those involved with this project that this experience developed

enthusiasm, as teacher candidates who participated in this project reported that their

excitement about teaching resulted mostly from their one-on-one interactions with

students during skill development sessions. Although enthusiasm for teaching is an

intangible rather than a measurable disposition, it is certainly a characteristic many

would agree a high quality teacher should possess. One teacher candidate made clear

in her reflection journal, "It is amazing when I really see him learn as a result of the

specific things I do with him. He is starting to really understand what he reads." This

clearly documents the impact an experience such as this can have on the disposition

of teacher candidates

ROBERT P. PELTON

The testimonials quoted above bear no causative impact on student achievement.

However, when this anecdotal evidence, along with the Read to Achieve standardized

data and Teacher Satisfaction Survey were presented to the school's administration,

the School Improvement Team, the school staff and faculty, the local college professors

and the teacher candidates, the decision was swift and clear: Intern implemented

Action Research within the Professional Development School should continue.

IMPLICATIONS

President Bush's education initiative, The No Child Left Behind Act, creates an oppor-

tunity for those of us in teacher preparation programs to look once more at this

problematic landscape and take a leading role in addressing the most pressing needs

of neighborhood schools. It is our obligation, as educators, to exemplify the best the-

ories and reflect on our successes while improving and refining them. We need to

examine the components of teacher education, ask what works, and then restructure

our programs for greater impact on both our teacher candidates and on public school

children.

Teacher candidates are often overwhelmed by being "observed" by their college

supervisors. They become obsessed with the formality of this process. Student learning

subsequently becomes secondary to "getting through" teacher observations. This ritual

diminishes the value of the teacher preparation experience to "rites of passage." We

know that lesson planning, classroom management, and differentiated instruction are

keys to successful teaching, but there is no single element more awe inspiring than

having a direct impact on children's achievement. The Read to Achieve Program

demonstrates that quality action research not only impacts children's achievement, it

also generates relevant and exciting "real world" material for teacher candidates'

study, reflection, and refinement under the guidance of their professors and school-

based practitioners. Thus, the teacher preparation program offers action-based

leadership in addressing the most pressing societal needs in education while creating

a dynamic learning experience that contributes to the preparation of highly qualified

teachers.

CONCLUSION

"We are enthusiastic and energized by the results of our own Read to Achieve

Program," states the elementary school's Principal. As designed and implemented

within the Professional Development School setting, the PDS partnership is tapping

the strengths of the teacher preparation program to play a vital role in student

achievement. The teacher candidates are part of two exceptional worlds: the college

campus provides theory, knowledge, access to the best of research, professors and

mentors eager to facilitate, guide, and teach; the 'real world' provides experience in

the classroom, students with diverse learning styles and needs, classroom teachers as

mentors, and administrators eager to have the best and brightest new teachers

become part of their future faculty. A program such as this provides powerful clinical

227

FROM PERFORMING TO PERFORMANCE

228

practice for teacher candidates and a highly affective learning environment for

children. It goes beyond the current scope of teaching preparation by making public edu-

cation the shared responsibility it needs to be in this time of diversity and globalization.

It engages the local school district, the college and/or university that prepares teachers,

the parents, and the teacher candidates in a collaborative and accountable effort. It is

a successful demonstration of how educators can become leaders in our own field,

not in spite of, but in confluence with, new federal legislation. In the Read to Achieve

Program, instead of spending more money, we reposition our assets to make our

already existing college and school-based programs work more pointedly for children

while also creating highly qualified teachers.

REFERENCES

Calhoun, E. F. (1993) Action research: Three approaches. Educational Leadership.

Ernest, P. (1995) The One and the Many, in Steffe, L. and Gale, J. (eds) Constructivism in Education

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ROBERT P. PELTON

BACKGROUND

In 2001 the Ministry of Education of Aotearoa/New Zealand, commissioned a tertiary

education initiative to support research projects that focus on the retention and

success rates of Maori and Pacifica students in tertiary institutions. This chapter

reports on the findings of an investigative case study conducted in one department of

a provincial tertiary educational institution. The case study sought to answer the

question: "What are the issues confronting Maori student participation and retention

in one department in this institution?" The findings suggest that curricular transfor-

mation, classroom pedagogy and relationships are critical areas for development if

we are to realise enhanced retention and success for Maori students. The case study

also highlights the need for building teacher capacity through professional development

in the tertiary environment, particularly in the areas of relationship building and dis-

cursive pedagogical practice.

INTRODUCTION

The enrolment of Maori in tertiary education has increased dramatically in recent

years, but participation and achievement have continued to be problematic (Hawke,

2002). This investigation of the factors that influence retention and success of non-

traditional students in general and Maori students in particular, is needed to identify

possible actions that may serve to address current trends.

Literature that discusses issues relating to student participation and retention at

tertiary level most often cites student characteristics as determinants of success or

failure. Evidence that students may be at risk of withdrawal or failure in the educa-

tion system include factors such as: being unprepared for tertiary study; lack of

social skills needed to negotiate access and resources in the institution; financial

problems and psychological state including loneliness, isolation, low self esteem,

lack of motivation and family problems (Promnitz and Germain, 1996; Hall et al .,

2001; Hawke, 2002). According to Hawke (2002), Maori students (as well as other

ethnic groups) may experience further barriers, including negative stereotyping of

identity and ability, family obligations, lack of family support for finance or study

and little opportunity to contribute "to social or political change" (p. 3).

This approach promotes a view of students as lacking in skills, knowledge and atti-

tudes that would support their success and retention. Advocates recommend increased

student support services and programmes to help at-risk students overcome factors

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16. MAORI STUDENT RETENTION AND SUCCESS:

CURRICULUM, PEDAGOGY AND RELATIONSHIPS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 229–240.

230

such as self-doubt, lack of study skills and inappropriate attitudes to academic study.

It is considered then, that students need to acculturate to the environment of tertiary

study in order to gain "institutional fit and commitment" (Lake, 1998, p. 1). This deficit

perspective positions the problem or difficulty within the student and releases teachers

and institutions from scrutiny (Simon, 1990; Smith, 1991; Bishop and Glynn, 1999).

Further investigation of the literature however (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Abbott-

Chapman and Edwards, 1998; Beasley, 1998; Hill and Hawk, 2000; Hall et al ., 2001;

Hawke, 2002, cited in Simon, 1990; Promnitz and Germain, 1996; Bishop and

Glynn, 1999), reveals the emergence of a critical approach that seeks to expose

structural/systemic factors that impact on student participation and success. Authors

note that so-called non-traditional groups of students have now become the "vast

majority of our students" (Smith, 1991, p. 2). These authors seek to shift the focus

away from the shortcomings of students and instead onto the role of the institution in

promoting success.

Three areas for institutional change are identified as fundamental to address issues

that influence participation and retention of non-traditional students, including

Maori. These are curricular transformation, classroom pedagogy and relationships

(Smith, 1991; Bishop and Glynn, 1999). In the following discussion we look at each

of these aspects of change.

CURRICULAR TRANSFORMATION

It is crucial that the curriculum itself is transformed, not only to acknowledge the

diversity and value of experience and knowledge of students who are other than tra-

ditional mainstream, but more importantly, to reduce student alienation, not "simply

adding courses that plug holes in the curriculum … [but] asking new questions that

more naturally embrace … the perspectives of those at the margins by placing them at

the centre" (Smith, 1991, p. 4). Maori (and minority) students need to see themselves

reflected in the curriculum through acknowledgment of their prior learning, their values

and experiences, their traditions and cultural icons, in order to effectively engage with

the curriculum and develop commitment to their study and achievement (Bishop, 2002).

The vision for change in curricula is underpinned by the inclusion of prior experi-

ences and knowledge of all students that can enable co-creation of knowledge, cultural

constructivism and experiential learning (Ladson-Billings, 1995, cited in Bishop and

Glynn, 1999; Stables and Scott, 2002). Discussion of such a vision inevitably leads to

issues of power relations in classrooms as to who determines the control and evalua-

tion of content and assessment (Smith, 1991; Bishop and Glynn, 1999). These authors

also point out that even where appropriate content is included in curricula, classroom

pedagogy will further influence student participation.

CLASSROOM PEDAGOGY

Bishop and Glynn emphasise that power sharing and participation are "fundamental

to learning for all students" [and] "power relations cannot change unless both parties

RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY

participate" (1999, p. 132). Thus, the role of the teacher in the classroom is central to

the process of practising pedagogy and negotiating power sharing in relation to learning.

There is growing recognition that people learn in different ways and that best practice

pedagogy includes effective participation, early feedback and transparent assessment

(Smith, 1991; Stables and Scott, 2002; Hall et al., 2001). Traditional delivery was based

on an assumption that a lecture conveyed information most efficiently to individual

learners. The acknowledgment of differing learning styles now requires a range of alter-

native ways of learning and teaching. This process has been distorted, however, some-

times resulting in the stereotyping of Maori students as kinaesthetic or oral learners.

Some researchers refute this stereotyping as simplistic and discriminatory, asserting that

alternative ways are examples of best practice that should be seen as important for the

success of all students and not simply as remedial techniques for helping at-risk indi-

viduals (Smith, 1991; Abbott-Chapman and Edwards, 1998; Bishop and Glynn, 1999).

Smith (1991) labels this an issue of quality delivery. She points to a traditional

perception, that there will be conflict between promoting diversity and maintaining

standards, and emphasises that expectations of excellent performance would be an

indicator of success in managing diversity. The study by Ladson-Billings (1995) also

makes this link, describing teacher expectations where "students were not permitted

to choose failure in these classrooms" (cited in Bishop and Glynn, 1999, p. 153).

Inextricably linked to classroom pedagogy is the diversity of teachers themselves.

Diversity amongst staff is often referred to as an important factor in supporting

non-traditional students. Smith says that it is not enough to provide (minority) role

models; rather, institutions must take seriously the need for power to be "shared by a

diverse mix of persons … at all levels and in all dimensions" (1991, p. 5). In addition,

institutions are exhorted to retain and develop minority staff, to overcome their sense

of isolation and alienation and to actively seek the benefits of intellectual and social

diversity. Thus diversity may become embedded in the culture of the institution

through the diversity of relationships it encourages amongst its individuals.

RELATIONSHIPS

Relationships are the third factor identified in the literature as having an impact on

student retention and success. It is in the context of an institutional culture that

nurtures diversity, that teaching practice and services may be developed that will

genuinely meet the learning needs of all students. The role of support services has

been given differing importance in various reports. What has been consistent, however,

has been the importance of relationships between students, between teachers and

students and between students and the institution (Promnitz and Germain, 1996;

Abbott-Chapman and Edwards, 1998; Hall et al ., 2001).

Students learn from other students. They talk about problems, tell each other about

services and respond to mentor and peer support schemes (Promnitz & Germain,

1996; Abbott-Chapman and Edwards, 1998; Hall et al ., 2001).

Similarly, students respond to teachers who treat them as individuals. They feel

validated by a teacher who sees the person, not the disability or difference, who follows

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232

up absences or inquires about health or personal issues, and who provides feedback

from an early stage in the relationship (Promnitz & Germain, 1996; Abbott-Chapman

and Edwards, 1998; Hall et al ., 2001).

Students make use of the services provided by the institution if they have information

about what is available and if they perceive those services as mainstream and not

compensatory (Promnitz & Germain, 1996; Abbott-Chapman and Edwards, 1998;

Hall et al ., 2001). Some studies report an increasing reluctance for students to

identify as members of targeted groups, preferring to make use of mainstream services

(Abbott-Chapman and Edwards, 1998). Such choices are also identifiable in the enrol-

ments at a New Zealand University, where Maori students are choosing mainstream

programmes and rejecting specialist Maori education strands. This resistance to extra

or compensatory services and courses appears to confirm the assertion of Bishop and

Glynn (1999) that reforming education to focus on the marginalised, in fact perpetuates

their marginalisation.

This does not mean however, that support services should not be developed.

They have become "an important element in defining an institution's quality and

competitiveness" (Promnitz and Germain, 1996, p. 2) and should be "not located in

a discourse of welfare but in a discourse of rights" (Abbott-Chapman and Edwards,

1998, p. 3). Students' relationship with the institution is negotiated through the

people and services that provide clear guidelines to institutional expectations of

them, development of learning skills and success in their studies. The confidence that

student support is central to the core business of the institution (not an add-on for the

deficient) may be a determining factor in effective participation and retention. Thus

the individual's relationship with the institution may be seen as a composite of their

engagement with the curriculum, their involvement in classroom practice and the

relationships they form with other students, with teachers, and through their access

and valuing of the support services and qualifications that encourage commitment to

the institution.

The comprehensive analysis of issues that affect student participation and retention

in the literature points to many external factors. Abbott-Chapman and Edwards

(1998, p. 2) add an important rider to the discussion:

We should not, however, underestimate the ability of disadvantaged students

to overcome the obstacles to access and participation they may meet, and

the importance of the development of self-help groups and strong sense

of 'perceived personal control'in education.

This overview of the literature has demonstrated that genuine integration of diversity

into the curriculum and classroom pedagogy of an institution, in partnership and rela-

tionship with diverse individuals at all levels of the institution, provides a model of how

an institution may respond, in an endeavour to address issues of participation and reten-

tion of marginalised students. Examples of specific factors that relate to Maori students'

experiences have been identified, in particular the importance of relationships that

support students in the institution. In addition, the imperative for quality practice and

high performance expectations were identified as potential benefits for all students.

RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY

METHODOLOGY

The research design of this study was guided by the case study approach utilising a

combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches. The principal reason behind

this dual design was linked with the focus of the study: to give increased understanding

of the issues confronting Maori student participation and retention in a provincial

tertiary educational institution in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The research question was

in part, one of measuring participation in quantitative terms of how much and how

many. It was also about qualitative issues of uncovering insights, making discoveries,

understanding and interpretation (Burns, 1994). The duality of design in this study

has allowed the best of both research paradigms to be incorporated. The quantitative

perspective enumerated the statistics of the research, while the qualitative approach

conveyed understanding of the impact of these statistics from multiple perspectives.

A situational case study approach has been employed in this study because it presents,

examines and interprets the specific personal experiences and preferences of Maori

students in one department. The cohesive collation of all respondents' viewpoints

provides a starting point for an understanding of issues confronting Maori student

participation and retention, and can aid in the implementation of improved practice

and learning opportunities (Merriam, 1988).

Ethical considerations

The data collection processes implemented throughout this inquiry have been guided

by the ethical principles for researchers at the research site and aligned to those

adopted by the American Anthropological Association. A summary of the guidelines

pertinent to this study and how they were applied is presented in the following.

Consistent with most qualitative investigation in the field of education, this

research project was overt in nature. The researchers discussed the study with the

Head of Department and also identified themselves to potential respondents via written

correspondence. A major element in overt research is 'informed consent'. Through

informed consent, potential informants are made aware that their participation is

voluntary, confidential and that their anonymity will be maintained (Bogdan and

Biklen, 1992). This information was conveyed in a letter that was sent to each potential

respondent seeking their cooperation in the data collection process.

Selection of respondents

Contact with potential respondents was made by letter explaining the nature of the

research and seeking their cooperation as respondents. Letters and accompanying

questionnaires were sent to 470 past and currently enrolled Maori students who

had taken, or were currently undertaking a programme of study in the identified

department.

Respondents were selected from a broad range of criteria including:

●all students who identified as Maori on their enrolment from

●male and female

●all age ranges

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MAORI STUDENT RETENTION AND SUCCESS

234

●full time and part time students

●students enrolled in any programme offered in the department, including business,

computing/information technology and tourism and travel programmes.

Whilst 470 questionnaires were distributed, only 56 were returned completed.

Larsson and Helmstad (1985) comment in relation to small sized qualitative research

work, "the small number of individuals … make generalisations impossible from a sta-

tistical standpoint" (p. 7). Whilst recognising that responses to written questionnaires

do not necessarily give sufficient evidence of conclusive or generalisable explanations

for the lack of retention, this case study which looked at one specific department in

a medium sized regional tertiary organisation, could be replicated in broader situations

to identify further trends and generalisations.

Data collection

The primary method of data collection was a postal questionnaire, supplemented by

document collection of available printed information. A postal questionnaire was

selected as the primary method of data collection because of the potentially large

number of respondents spread over a wide geographical spread.

The task of developing and implementing the questionnaire was accomplished fol-

lowing six key steps including: determining the questions; drafting the questionnaire

items; sequencing the questions; designing the questionnaire; revising the instrument

and developing a strategy for data collection and analysis. In addition, documents

rather than records were analysed to aid understanding. Data about Maori student

participation and attrition was acquired through available printed documents including

annual reports, and attrition surveys. For this study, the most important use of the doc-

uments was to provide a sound understanding of historical trends and also to augment

the information acquired via the questionnaire.

Data analysis

Merriam (1988) writes, "thinking about one's data theorising is a step toward develop-

ing theory that explains some aspect of educational practice and allows one to draw

inferences about that activity" (p. 141). Further, Taylor and Bogdan (1984), state that

the goal of data analysis is to "come up with reasonable conclusions and generalisations

based on a preponderance of the data" (p. 139). Speculation then, is the key component

to contributing to theory in a qualitative study.

The analysis and interpretation of research data in this study sought to explain and

describe the nature and variety of issues confronting Maori student participation and

retention in the selected department, within a set of conceptually specified analytic

categories (Huberman and Miles, 1994). The analytic categories were developed in

two ways. First, the completed questionnaires were examined and analysed, and from

this initial raw information emergent themes or categorisations were identified.

Quotes were clustered together based on their similarity and separated from each

other according to their incongruity. From the groupings of quotes, elemental meanings

were extracted and criteria for each group established.

Second, the categorisations were defined in part through the literature review. The

literature revealed a number of barriers to Maori student participation and retention

RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY

in post compulsory education. Consequently, the implications of the literature review

were also considered when the analytical categorisations were established.

The form of analysis for this study was a quantifiable one initially, moving into a

qualitative interpretation. The case study findings should not be treated as conclusive,

but rather as a reflection of a perceived cultural situation that warrants further investiga-

tion. As Denzin and Lincoln (1994) note, when interpretations are arrived at, it is impor-

tant to remember that "there is no interpretive truth … .there are multiple interpretive

communities …" (p. 15).

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The utilisation of one postal questionnaire may be considered a limitation of this

study. Some may argue that insufficient information is gleaned in a single snap shot

questionnaire to provide credibility of findings. The aim however, was to capture an

initial response to questions asked within a limited timeframe.

Lack of face to face interviews, or focus group discussions may be seen as a further

limitation in this study. Interviews or focus groups could have added further dimen-

sions to the study and may have gleaned more in-depth responses. A future study

could well explore similar questions with some focus groups to aid in triangulation

of data collection.

The employ of non Maori researchers may be perceived by some as a limitation of

the study. This research was conducted however, as an institutional initiative engaging

non Maori researchers. Further research conducted from a kaupapa Maori perspective,

could extend and enhance the understandings and benefits for Maori student retention

and success.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The findings from this study reveal that Maori students in a provincial tertiary organ-

isation are represented in lower level (levels 2–5), short courses (1–2 years). Greater

numbers of Maori females (75%) are accessing these courses than Maori males

(25%). Most of the Maori males participating in tertiary education in this study are

in the 35–40 year old age bracket, whilst the greater number of Maori females are in

the 29–34 year old age group.

The data indicate three key findings. First, in spite of the curricula being grounded

in a dominant culture paradigm, Maori students are continuing to engage in academic

study. Second, classroom pedagogy fails to support Maori students through discursive,

co-constructive practices that embrace high expectations of students. Third, relation-

ships are pivotal to Maori student success.

CURRICULAR TRANSFORMATION

The majority of respondents (89%) in this study were enrolled in business related

courses. 11% of respondents were enrolled in tourism and travel programmes offered

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MAORI STUDENT RETENTION AND SUCCESS

236

in the particular department of study. Of the 56 responses received, half of the male

respondents had returned for a second year of study and slightly more than half of the

female respondents had enrolled in a second year of study. The data indicate that in

spite of curricula being grounded in the dominant culture paradigm, Maori students

are continuing to engage in academic study. Students are however, able to clearly

articulate their dissatisfaction with a curriculum that fails to acknowledge a Maori

epistemological perspective. The following citations highlight the need for Maori

students to see their culture reflected in the curriculum:

I have found very little in the way of expression of Maori culture.

There was no cultural content [Maori] … all western and American case

studies.

It would have been excellent if Te Reo was added to the programme … or

a noho marae … there wasn't any cultural understanding.

These examples highlight the perspective of those still at the margins (Smith, 1991)

of their educational experience and the inherent barriers that such positioning

creates. It is abundantly evident that academics have a responsibility to engage in

curricula transformation that both acknowledges and embeds a Maori epistemology.

The power of enculturation into the dominant culture was exemplified in the com-

ments of another respondent who evidenced a markedly different perspective. S/he said:

I consider favouritism to Maoris [sic] to be sick. We all as New Zealanders

have the same opportunities in education from the day we start school at

five years old. Some of us make use of our education system and others

ignore the opportunity provided.

This example supports Abbott-Chapman and Edwards (1998) claims that students

may be resistant to compensatory services or to being part of a targeted group.

Clearly, for this respondent research focussing on Maori student retention and success

was considered compensatory and perpetuating Maori marginalisation.

CLASSROOM PEDAGOGY

Teaching styles

Consistent with Bishop and Glynn's (1999) research supporting discursive teaching

practices, the data indicate that the majority of respondents showed a strong preference

toward tutorial, interactive group work and computer aided learning. This finding was

consistent with the data that identified the most commonly utilised methods of teaching

by staff as lectures, tutorials and interactive group work.

A second cluster of data indicated that for some students, individual research,

group research, lectures, study groups, contract learning and audio visual teaching

and learning were the preferred modes of learning and/or delivery. Again, this was

generally consistent with the data that identified the teaching/learning methods staff

most commonly used.

RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY

Case studies, field trips, noho marae (visits to Maori cultural centres), guest speakers,

seminars and presentations, and role plays were identified as the least preferred teaching/

learning methods by respondents. The data suggest that respondents expressed a

preference for the teaching/learning style that they most commonly experienced in

the classroom, with possibly little appreciation, understanding or valuing of what

other pedagogical practices may offer.

Some respondents indicated that their success in study was hindered because of

certain classroom pedagogical practices:

They [tutors] have no regard for Maori students.

I felt like I didn't understand a lot of the theory.

Too much information and not enough time to learn … too rushed.

Expectations

The literature (Smith, 1991) highlights the importance of performance and quality

not being compromised when working with diverse groups of students. Similarly,

Bishop's (2001) research identifies high student expectations as a key to quality out-

comes for Maori students. This study revealed that for some students, low expectations

were a barrier to their success. For example, respondents said:

The sense that the required standards to be met at university were not

expected at xxxx [this organisation]. There are lowered standards and

less demanded excellence.

I have found the environment apathetic, particularly toward bi-cultural

students such as myself.

For another student, perceived different expectations for Maori and Pakeha was a

barrier. S/he said "I have found I have to do more than Pakeha students to achieve the

same results".

Respondents' expectations of themselves also influenced their likelihood of success

in this study. The following examples highlight the significance of self expectation on

student success.

My sheer determination to see the papers through and endeavour to get

as many modules as I could …

Self discipline and personal desire to achieve good results …

My own desire to further my education … enjoyment of courses and support

of teachers and of other students all helped me [succeed].

Relationships

It is commonsense that sound relationships between a teacher and student are pivotal

to student engagement in the learning process. A key finding from this research is

that whilst unequal power relationships (Bishop and Glynn, 1999) inhibit Maori stu-

dent success, for example, one student said, "prejudice by a tutor made it difficult,"

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MAORI STUDENT RETENTION AND SUCCESS

238

positive teacher – student relationships serve to encourage retention and success, as

evidenced in the comment, "the tutors … were interested and developed relationships

with students, meaning they were approachable and tolerant of student stresses and

needs." Clearly then, the establishment of positive, reciprocal relationships between

students and teachers is fundamental for students to develop self efficacy and subse-

quent success.

As Abbott-Chapman and Edwards (1998), Hall et al. (2001) and Promnitz and

Germain (1996) note, caring relationships are pivotal to student success. Students

respond to teachers who see the person, not the disability. One respondent in this

study pertinently exemplified this point commenting "the tutors gave good support

and understanding of my disability."

Positive relationships with classmates, employers and family/whanau also served

as a support factor to student success in this study. The notion of positive power sharing

relationships (Bishop and Glynn, 1999; Hill and Hawk, 2000) is a prerequisite to

Maori student retention and success as the following respondents commented:

My classmates, tutors and whanau support helped me.

I would say support is given to students of my nationality.

I received wonderful help and support from my employer who I know was

dedicated to helping me achieve my goals.

Student's relationships with personnel in the organisation, classmates, employers,

family/whanau and significant others, is unquestionably fundamental to their retention

and success in a tertiary environment. The challenge lies in facilitating the discourse

that will build organisational capacity in addressing this key to Maori student retention

and success.

CONCLUSION

Whilst a certain degree of student attrition and/or lack of success is inevitable in any

tertiary environment, the current levels evident in New Zealand statistics are unaccept-

able. This study highlights the need for a paradigm shift in current ways of thinking and

practice about Maori student retention and success in mainstream organisations. The

findings suggest a need for curricular transformation, discursive pedagogical prac-

tices and the development of reciprocal, power sharing relationships, if we are to

begin to address the student retention and success issue. We suggest that a starting

point lies in raising teacher capacity through professional development.

As we develop consciousness raising amongst teachers about issues such as

curriculum co-construction, high student expectation, acknowledgment of prior

knowledge, high cultural visibility, discursive classroom practices and equal power

sharing relationships, we will begin to address the very issues that lie at the heart of

Maori student retention and success. Indeed, what is urgent is a change in the dis-

course from a deficit focus on Maori student attrition and lack of success, to one of

acknowledgment of the power of relationships and pedagogy in Maori success. As we

RUTH GORINSKI AND GLORIA ABERNETHY

support teachers through professional development, to be reflective in and on their

practice, we will build teachers capacity as agents of change and so begin to celebrate

enhanced Maori student retention and success in our tertiary institutions.

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239

MAORI STUDENT RETENTION AND SUCCESS

INTRODUCTION

The term "teacher education" was traditionally used to mean pre-service teacher

preparation, before being a teacher and joining the teaching profession. This

approach meant four years of preparation and forty years of teaching, without any

development or change in the teacher's knowledge or ways of dealing with students,

or methods of teaching and evaluation.

On the contrary, teacher education now means a continuous process of profes-

sional growth beginning with undergraduate studies and culminating in retirement

(Burke, 1987). The reason for this is that the needs of teachers change all the time,

and these changes prompt different requirements that go in parallel with these

changes.

It must be considered that a certificate in any field of study is not enough to pre-

pare any person to be a teacher, because it is not the knowledge alone that makes

somebody a teacher (Anderson, 1989), rather he/she must have other qualifications

that can't be achieved without rich school experiences and continuous development

in order to accomplish the goals and purposes of education.

The process of teacher preparation is one of the most controversial issues among

education theorists all over the world. Bruke (1987), for example, sees that it must

include:

●A period of basic and pedagogical preparation;

●Successful induction into teaching positions and tasks throughout the career;

●Continuing personal and professional renewal in knowledge and teaching skills; and

●Redirection of tasks and expertise as the changeable society dictates.

The period of basic pedagogical preparation usually includes three main

components: content, pedagogical and practical. Woolfolk (1989), on the other hand,

indicated that there are two models of teacher preparation programs:

●The Integrative Model: This model begins by preparing students at the Bachelor's

level through studying courses in education, as well as other specialized courses,

where students spent their time largely studying the content. Integrated programs

may or may not include a full time field training at the BA level. Sometimes it

might be followed by a fifth (and sometimes a sixth) year in which students con-

centrate on professional teacher education courses and at least one internship

experience. This model is diversified within the programs it offers such as:

a) Programs during which the training period might be with charge

or without;

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MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

17. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION

PROGRAMS IN JORDAN: A CASE STUDY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 241–266.

242

b) Students can obtain their BA degrees in 4 years as well as their MA at the 5th

or 6th year. They may also obtain both degrees concurrently upon the comple-

tion of the program;

c) Students may not obtain any degree upon graduation, but only a limited num-

ber of graduate credits.

●The Consecutive Model: Under this model, the academic preparation is first

completed at the BA level, then the professional preparation follows after the

attainment of the BA in the specialized field, where teachers spend one year or

more in teaching preparation. This model is also quite diversified as there are

different types of programs such as:

a) Programs in which the candidates obtain their MA degree upon completion,

but they may also not obtain any academic degree and may only be considered

ready for teaching;

b) Students may undertake additional courses in the academic stream, although

this is rare;

c) The program may be primarily field work.

Both models have advantages and disadvantages; for the Integrative Model more

time may be available for the familiarization with the teaching process. However, the

Consecutive Model facilitates the process of transforming students who had never

previously considered the teaching profession at the BA level to enter the profession

after graduation, In addition, it provides teachers with more time to master the

academic and education courses necessary to make them teach well.

On the other hand, many educators believe that moving into the consecutive Model

is more costly and therefore discourages the economically disadvantaged students

from joining the teaching profession, hence the chances of talented persons entering

this profession are decreased. Moreover, it makes transferring the effect of learning

to the classroom more difficult.

Anderson and Mitchener (1994), in their excellent review of research on science

teacher education, mentioned that Feiman-Nissmer (1990) surveyed five conceptual

orientations for teacher education:

●The academic orientation: This orientation focuses on transmitting knowledge

and developing understanding. It emphasizes the subject-matter background of

the teacher, and favors didactic instruction, teaching how to think, inquiry, and the

structure of the discipline. In summary, it is oriented to developing a strong

subject-matter background than to learning pedagogical skills.

●The Practical orientation: This orientation focuses on the skills of teaching. It

tends to focus on the experience in the classroom as the source of learning to be a

teacher. It is commonly associated with various forms of apprenticeship systems

of teacher education. The risk here is that the novice teacher will imitate the expe-

rienced teacher without reflecting on what is experienced.

●Technological orientation: This orientation aims at producing teachers that can

carry out the tasks of teaching with proficiency. It draws heavily on the results of

research on effective teaching, and includes the competency-based teacher education

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

approach, which gained recognition a generation ago and is getting renewed attention

in the current education reform efforts.

●The personal orientation: This orientation focuses on the teacher as a learner, and

the teacher's own personal development is a central part of teacher preparation.

●The critical/social orientation: In this orientation, the teacher is one who works to

remove social inequities and promote democratic values in the classroom. He also

fosters group problem solving among students. There are various types of this

orientation that are quite different, but they share the same purpose, that is:

preparing teachers to change society.

It is clear from the preceding discussion that there are many approaches to teacher

education used to prepare teachers and to develop their performance during their

work as a teacher at schools, and there is no consensus among educators about

which approach is better than others, although many contemporary proposals for the

reform of teacher education suggest that the undergraduate education major should

be eliminated, and a variety of models for graduate teacher education have been pro-

posed in recent years by individuals and groups such as the American Association of

Colleges of Teacher Education,1983; The Holmes Group, 1986; and Carnegie

Forum on Education and Economy, 1986 (Zeichner, 1989).But this movement was

rejected by many other educators like Travers and Sacks (1987), Tom (1986) and

Hawley (1986).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON TEACHER EDUCATION

There is a great deal of research in the field of teacher education in many countries

and in different fields related to this field. One of the excellent reports published in

the last few years is the report prepared by Wilson et al. (2001) from Michigan State

University for the U.S Department of Education and the Office of Educational

Research and Improvement. The researchers examined more than 300 published

research reports and found that 57 of them met their criteria. They organized their

summary of these reports around five major questions that address key aspects of

teacher preparation:

What kind of subject matter preparation, and how much of it, do prospective

teachers need? They found that the research shows a positive connection between

teachers' preparation in their subject matter and their performance in the classroom

(Darling-Hammond, 2000). But there is little evidence in the research about the kinds

or amount of subject matter needed to prepare teachers effectively. Monk (1994)

found that contrary to the prevalent belief that increasing academic preparation was

always best, there are many indicators that teachers could possess the course content

from many different sources, one of which is the academic preparation at the univer-

sity. He also found that subject matter study by student teachers beyond four to six

courses had little effect on the achievement of their students. Research suggests that

there is a need to change teacher preparation in subject matter. But this does not mean

having a major or studying more subject matter courses.

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EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

244

What kinds of pedagogical preparation, and how much of it, do prospective teachers

need? They found that having courses in areas such as instructional methods, learning

theories, foundations of education, and classroom management does matter, both for

their effects on teaching practice, and for their ultimate impact on student achievement

(Adams and Krockover, 1997; Grossman and Richert, 1988). One of these studies

revealed that these courses are good predictors of teaching performance (Guyton and

Farokhi, 1987). Ferguson and Womack (1993), on the other hand found that educa-

tional coursework accounted for 48% of the variance in teaching performance from the

point of view of education supervisors, and 39% of the variance from the point of view

of the subject matter supervisors. On the other hand, subject matter major explained 1%

and 9% of the variance of the outcome variable as rated by the subject matter supervi-

sors and education supervisors. Grossman (1989) found that new secondary English

teachers who did not have teacher education are not able to make English school sub-

jects accessible to their students. They used teaching strategies that they had experi-

enced as learners at schools. Studies revealed that there is no consensus between

educators on the content and arrangement of the academic courses in the programs of

teacher preparation. One of the reasons for complications in this area is that there is no

agreement on the meaning of educational preparation, and every institute of higher

education differs from the others in the kind, number, and content of these courses.

What kind, timing, and amount of clinical training best equips prospective teachers for

classroom practice? Both experienced and newly appointed teachers see clinical experi-

ence as a powerful element of teacher preparation. There are different clinical training

periods found in higher education institutions. Some of them last eight weeks, while oth-

ers last a complete year. Some occur early, and others are connected to specific univer-

sity coursework. What constitutes "Field experience" varies from one institution to

another, some of them are designed to develop skills in instruction and classroom man-

agement, and others are designed to give practical reality to concepts encountered in uni-

versity coursework. Several studies found that the clinical training experiences are

limited, disconnected from university coursework, and inconsistent. Prospective teachers

face difficulties in implementing what they had learned at the university when they begin

teaching (Borko et al., 1992). One of the studies found that when the student teachers

become overwhelmed with the challenges of learning to teach, they revert to the meth-

ods of teaching used at the schools in which they were taught (Eisenhart, et al ., 1991).

What policies and strategies have been used successfully by states, universities,

school districts, and other organizations to improve and sustain the quality of

prospective teacher education? Studies in this area were limited, but there was a sig-

nificant difference in retention and career satisfaction favoring five-year program

graduates (Andrew, 1990). Studies call for further research in this respect to link state

or institutional polices with teacher preparation variables (Darling-Hammond, 2000).

What are the components and characteristics of high-quality alternative certification

programs? Research in this area shows that the alternative route attracts a diverse

pool of prospective teachers in terms of age and ethnicity (Guyton et al. , 1991).

They also have a mixed record for attracting the best and brightest teachers

(Shen, 1997), and there are higher percentages of alternatively certified teachers teaching

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

in urban settings or teaching minority children (Shen, 1997). The evaluation of

performance of alternative and traditional routes produces mixed results (Hutton et al .,

1990), but many alternative route programs have high dropout rates (Stoddart, 1990).

The Education Commission of the States (ECS) published another report on

teacher preparation research in The United States in 2003. This report addressed the

following eight questions:

●To what extent does subject Knowledge contribute to the effectiveness of a

teacher? It was found that there is moderate support for the importance of solid

subject-matter knowledge, and it is not clear how much subject matter knowledge

is important for teaching specific courses and grade levels.

●To what extent does pedagogical coursework contribute to teacher's effectiveness?

There is also limited support for the conclusion that preparation in pedagogy can

contribute significantly to effective teaching. This opens the door to the consider-

ation of alternative preparation routes, which emphasize on-the-job training, and

have a limited pre-service component.

●To what extent does high-quality field-based experience prior to certification

contribute to a teacher's effectiveness? The research fails to provide the kind of

evidence necessary to answer the question. Most of the influence of this experience

is expressed as changes in beliefs and attitudes that have no proven correlation

with teacher effectiveness. This also invites consideration of including alternative

route programs in which pre-service field experience is minimal.

●Are there "Alternative route" programs that graduate high percentages of effective

new teachers with average or higher-than-average rates of teacher retention? There

is limited support for the conclusion that alternative programs produce teachers

that are ultimately as effective as traditionally trained teachers. Research suggests

that the following features are important to successful alternative route programs:

a) strong partnership between preparation programs and school districts,

b) good participant screening and selection process,

c) strong supervision and mentoring for participants during their teaching,

d) solid curriculum that includes coursework in classroom basics and teaching

methods, and

e) as much training and coursework as possible prior to the assignment of partic-

ipants to full-time teaching.

●Are there any teacher preparation strategies that are likely to increase the effective-

ness of new teachers in hard-to-staff or low-performing schools? Research sug-

gests that the efforts to train prospective teachers in these schools can be beneficial.

●Is setting more-stringent teacher preparation program entrance requirements, or

conducting more-selective screening of program candidates, likely to ensure that

teachers will be more effective? Two studies found correlation between the

strength of teacher's academic success and direct or indirect success in teaching.

There were no studies found that addressed the impact of more-selective screening

of candidates for teacher preparation programs.

●Does the accreditation of teacher preparation programs contribute significantly to

the likelihood that their graduates will be effective and will remain in the classroom?

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EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

246

The research studies on this issue are limited, and there is no implication for policy

can be drawn from the available research.

●Do institutional warranties for new teachers contribute to the likelihood that

recent graduates of those institutions will be effective? This issue was not a subject

of any appreciable research, thus, it is difficult to ascertain anything about it.

In Jordan, many studies were conducted to evaluate pre-service and in-service

teacher education programs. El-sheikh (1994), for instance, conducted a study to

evaluate teacher certification programs in the Jordanian universities. He used a

questionnaire to detect the views of student teachers, and faculty members about the

programs. He also attended some classes of both groups and found that the aims of

such programs are not stated clearly, the relative weights of the academic and peda-

gogical components differ from one university to another, and the teaching methods

used by faculty members are mainly theoretical. The graduates of the programs are

skilful in class management, and implementing audio-visual aids and textbooks. But

they are not skilled in evaluating their students.

Al-Smadi (1999) also conducted a study aimed at evaluating classroom teacher

preparation at the Jordanian University. Questionnaires were used to detect the views

of student teachers, school principals and faculty members about this program. He

found that the aims of this program are not stated clearly. The program's content is

not suitable for the school curricula, and the teaching methods used by the faculty

members are mainly theoretical. Finally, the graduates of the programs are not skilled

in evaluating their students.

A third study was conducted by Aghbar and Shboul (1996) to investigate the role

of teacher preparation programs in developing school performance from the point of

view of the graduate students and school principals. They found that studying Islamic

Education, Arabic Language, Social Studies, Mathematics, Science, Physical

Education, Art Education, and Music is beneficial for the students. The students also

benefited from courses such as: Methods of Teaching Islamic Education, Arabic and

Social Studies. Measurement and Evaluation, Class Management, Educational

Psychology, Curricula and Teaching Methods, Philosophy of Education and

Developmental Psychology are also beneficial. The graduates were skilful in plan-

ning for teaching, Class management, implementing audiovisual aids, pupils' evalu-

ation and using textbooks.

On the other hand, there are many studies that tried to evaluate programs of

in-service teacher training in Jordan. Al-Nahar et al. (1992), for example, conducted

an evaluation study for training programs launched by the Ministry of Education. The

most important outcomes of the training program as perceived by trainees are sharing

experience and concerns with other colleagues and the acquisition of new teaching

methods. Trainers were judged to be inefficient. Lecturing and discussion methods

were frequently used in training.

The results of other studies that evaluated the training programs (Wshah, 1991;

Al-Ahmad, 1993; Al-Olwan, 1994; Al-Kailani, 1995; Abo-Shhab, 1995; Hamadneh,

1996; Al-Hardan, 1997; Abo-Alsheikh, 1999) can be summarized as follows:

●Training for developing thinking and catering for individual differences was more

effective for Mathematics teachers than Arabic and English teachers.

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

●Mathematics teachers showed real progress in planning, implementing audio-

visual aids, class management, stimulating pupils' motivation, and pupils' evaluation

competencies. Teachers of Arabic, Social Studies and Physical Education showed

some progress in these competencies.

●Aims of the training programs were not obvious.

●Training methods were generally theoretical and the trainers need more training to

master the training methods.

●There is a weak relationship between the training materials and the trainees'needs.

●Training centers lack the necessary facilities and equipment needed for training.

●Timing of training is not appropriate for the trainees because the training sessions

are held in the end-of-week vacation.

NEW TRENDS IN TEACHER EDUCATION

Teacher as a Reflective Professional

Both Carnegie Commission and Holms Group reports proposed that teachers must

be competent and able to make judgments on behalf of their students. In order to do

that, the Holms Group (1986) recommended that they must possess deep under-

standing of children, the subjects they teach, the nature of learning and schooling,

and the world around them. The Carnegie commission (1986) added to these recom-

mendations that teachers must be able to learn all the time. Both groups seem to sug-

gest the model of teacher as a "Reflective" or "Thoughtful" professional who has the

following qualities:

1. Engaged continuously in the process of learning.

2. Decision maker.

3. His/her thoughts, knowledge, judgments and decisions have a profound effect on

his/her way of teaching and on his/her students'achievement.

Reflective teachers reflect on and analyze the effects of their teaching and apply

the results of these reflections to their future plans and actions (Clark and Peterson,

1986). They have professional knowledge in a wide variety of areas, including

pedagogy and content as well as skills in planning, evaluating and making decisions

interactively during teaching (Peterson and Comeaux, 1989).

Metacognitive skills, such as weighing consequences, predicting outcomes,

planning alternatives, and examining one's own beliefs, theories, and assumptions

characterize reflective teachers who become reflective gradually, beginning with

declarative knowledge (knowing what), then develop procedural knowledge (know-

ing how), and finally acquire the metacognitive knowledge (Anderson, 1983).

Shulman (1987), on the other hand, defined seven domains of teachers'knowledge

as follows:

●Content knowledge, or understanding of the subject matter.

●General pedagogical knowledge, with special reference to those broad principles and

strategies of classroom management and organization, that appears to transcend

subject matter.

●Curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the materials and programs that

serve as "tools of the trade" for teachers.

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EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

248

●Pedagogical content knowledge, that special amalgam of content and pedagogy

that is uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional

understanding.

●Knowledge of learners and their characteristics.

●Knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the working of the group or

classroom, the governance and financing of school districts, to the characters of

communities and cultures.

●Knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical and

historical grounds.

Each of Shulman's domains may be crossed with three kinds of knowledge

(declarative, procedural and metacognitive knowledge) ending with a 7 3 matrix

representing 21 categories of professional knowledge required for the reflective

teacher (Peterson and Comeaux, 1989).

The teacher as learner

One of the primary requirements for teachers is to have sufficient knowledge to pass

on to students. The knowledge that teachers acquire during their study at the univer-

sity is not enough to make them successful teachers. Procedural knowledge and

appropriate application of it is also necessary for teachers to be successful. These

kinds of knowledge were traditionally suitable enough for teachers in the past, but

now it is necessary for them to be life-long learners. There are many reasons for

adopting this slogan:

●The unlimited and fast changes happening all around teachers that make it necessary

for them to understand these changes and be able to reflect this understanding in

the teaching process.

●The changes in educational psychology that occur from time to time and give new

directions for the teaching process at schools which oblige teachers to up-to-date

knowledge regarding these changes.

●Technological changes like computers and the Internet, which began to be the

main media for teaching and learning, and the teacher needs to master these tools

to be effective.

●General changes in education like those happening in student evaluation and testing,

national standards, and policy changes.

●Changes in the subject matter that the teacher teaches at school.

Such changes were part of the reason that made the Carnegie commission (1986)

recommend that teachers must be able to learn all the time. Based on this recom-

mendation, many programs of in-service teacher development were conducted all

over the world. Zemelman et al. (1994) found that six key conditions and approaches

help teachers grow and change. The first three focus on the external structural

conditions in the school, and the second three on the internal consciousness of

individual teachers. These are:

●Teachers need regular time together to talk, compare ideas, and cooperate with

each other because they work alone in the classroom.

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

●Teachers must collaborate with each other on tasks that have concrete results in

the classrooms.

●School leaders must support changes that let teachers feel safe to experiment.

●There is a need to support and strengthen teacher's latent professionalism by viewing

teaching strategies as more than private preferences but strategies to be compared,

analyzed, and adapted to the teacher's own style, by regarding the school staff

more as a community and less as a hierarchy, and by seeking improvement

because there is always more to learn.

●Teacher development is more effective if in-service programs use concrete experi-

ential activities, rather than starting with educational philosophy or research data.

●After experiencing new classroom strategies, teachers need to reflect, to analyze,

and to compare in order to build knowledge and understanding.

The teacher as researcher

Action research is at the center of many innovations in teacher certification and pro-

fessional development (Shirly, 2002). Teachers as researchers observe and analyze

their plans and actions and their subsequent impact on the students they teach. By

understanding both their own and the students' classroom behaviors, teachers as

researchers make informed decisions about what to change and what not to change.

They solve their own problems, link prior knowledge to new information, and accept

failures as learning experiences. Teachers as researchers ask questions and systemat-

ically find answers. They observe and monitor themselves and their students while

participating in the teaching and learning process. They question instructional prac-

tices and student outcomes.

The major goal of this approach to teacher education is the preparation of teacher

researchers with increased understanding of the school, the knowledge base of teach-

ing, the students they teach, and themselves as practitioners in a profession.

There are several models for anchoring the teacher education curriculum with the

concept of teacher as researcher. One of the programs that introduced students to

teaching with an inquiry-oriented method of analyzing social inequities and injus-

tices in existing school settings was conducted through the techniques of ethno-

graphic research. Questionnaires, classroom maps, and sociograms were used for

collecting data. As the student teachers saw patterns emerge from the data collected,

they began to interpret their findings using the theory from assigned readings to

explore interpretations of these patterns.

Another teacher preparation program introduced student teachers to the "teacher as

researcher" approach in a first semester educational sociology course. The course pro-

vided students with a grounded approach for observing, analyzing, and decision-making.

Each example describes pre-service students conducting research projects as core

elements of their teacher preparation programs as they were learning to teach.

In each example, however, pre-service students viewed themselves, their students,

and the schools placed within the context of inquiry, knowledge-based decision-making,

and change. (Anonymous, 1997).

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EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

250

In some teacher preparation programs, courses already exist that include collect-

ing and manipulating data. Some of these courses focus on testing and measuring

an individual's performance; others emphasize data collection strategies as requisite

information-gathering tools upon which to base subsequent education decisions

before entering the schools. Data collection may take the form of counting the number

of times an hour a student engages in an inappropriate behavior or the ratio of teacher

talk to student talk in verbal interactions. Teachers may use these same recording

strategies to determine the percentage of students per day in an entire class engaging

in appropriate or inappropriate behavior. If teachers want to improve class behavior,

they could identify and implement a management strategy or a motivational system.

After a few weeks of observing daily behavior patterns, the teachers could evaluate

the strategy's success. Similar measurement strategies could be useful in a number of

classrooms within a school.

PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AND

TEACHER PREPARATION

In 1986 Shulman described Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) as the way of

representing and formulating the subject that makes it comprehensible for others

(Shulman, 1986). In 1987 he listed it as one of seven knowledge bases for teaching.

These are: content Knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, curricular knowl-

edge, Knowledge of learners, knowledge of educational context, and knowledge of

philosophical and historical aims of education (Gess-Newsome, 2001).

Since then, PCK became a commonly accepted construct in education literature,

and it has been used as a major organizing construct in the literature on teachers'

knowledge (Borko and Putman, 1995).

As the construct of PCK was developed, refined, and examined, it also acted as a

stimulus for the development and evaluation of teacher preparation programs. Gess-

Newsome and Lederman (2001) presented three-teacher preparation programs based

on PCK: The elementary science teacher preparation program conducted by Zembal-

Saul, Starr and Krajicik, the secondary science and mathematics teacher preparation

program conducted by Niess and Scolz, and the secondary science teacher prepara-

tion program conducted by Mason. The three programs did not reveal the importance

of integration of subject matter and pedagogy.

Gess-Newsome (2001) proposed a continuum of teacher knowledge. On one

extreme of this continuum there is no PCK, and teacher knowledge can be explained

by the intersection of three domains: Subject matter, Pedagogy and Context, and

teaching builds on it as the act of integrating knowledge across these three domains.

She called it the integrative model. At the other extreme PCK is the transformation of

the three aforementioned domains into a unique form. She called it the transforma-

tive model. The first model is similar to what is happening when we mix several

ingredients together to get a new substance, but with each ingredient still having its

initial properties and distinguishable from other ingredients, while the second model

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

is similar to what happens in a compound when the mixed ingredients disappear and

can't be recognized as a result of their reaction.

Each of these models has a different effect on teacher education. Preparing teachers

using the integrative model needs deep and flexibly organized understandings in subject

matter, pedagogy, and context in addition to the tools necessary to integrate them.

Research on the implementation of this model did not produce the desired results.

Support for the transformative model is based on the assumption that teaching

knowledge in a purposefully integrated manner will develop the skills and knowl-

edge necessary for student teachers to be effective.

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES IN

TEACHER EDUCATION

There are different types of teacher preparation programs internationally. Table 17.1

shows various types of programs for the initial preparation of teachers in the United

States (Feistritzer, 1999).

Table 17.1 shows that 12% of the institutions of teacher preparation have a 2-year

community college program leading to a 4-year university program; 78% have 4-year

programs leading to certification to teach; 45% have 4–5 year programs leading to

certification to teach; 11% have 5-years programs leading to certification to teach;

47% have post-baccalaureate programs leading to certification to teach but not graduate

with a degree; and 43% have post-baccalaureate programs leading to certification to

teach and a graduate degree.

As for the applicability of the content of these programs, there is no consensus

among educators in this field. Some say it is not the duration but the courses under-

taken by the prospective teachers that have the greatest influence on their ability to

teach (Allen, 2003). On the other hand, there is a consensus between educators that

the number of hours taught by the student teachers is hardly sufficient to judge their

teaching capacity. In fact, they should continue learning as long as they work as

teachers, and not stop at what they studied at the university (National Science

Education Standards, 1996). Furthermore, the National Science Education Standards

in the US refers to the fact that professional progression for science teachers requires

integrated knowledge in science, learning, and teaching methods; and the application

251

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

TABLE 17.1 Types of teacher programs in the USA

2-year community 4-year 4–5 year Higher Higher studies Higher studies

college program university university university program leading program granting

a leading to a program program program to a diploma diploma and a

4-year university without an scientific degree

program academic degree

12.2% 77.7% 44.4% 11.4% 47.4% 43%

252

of this knowledge in real life situations. These are the proper components for the

preparation of science teachers, and one might say this applies even to teachers of

other disciplines as well.

The Center for Education Information in the US indicates that there are four pri-

mary components for programs of teacher preparation regardless of the level of

teacher preparation. These components are:

●General Courses.

●Academic Courses.

●Educational Courses.

●Teaching Practice.

Table 17.2 shows the required hours for each of the teacher preparation levels.

It can be seen from Table 17.2 that the postgraduate programs require 20 credit

hours less than undergraduate programs. In both types of program the greatest pro-

portion of credit hours go to general courses, then to academic courses, education

courses, and to clinical (teaching practice) courses.

The number of weeks students spend in clinical practice differs from one univer-

sity to another, with the highest number being around 14–16 weeks. Table 17.3 shows

the number of weeks spent by teaching students in teaching practice, and the per-

centages of candidates in each group (Feistritzer, 1999).

It can be seen from Table 17.3 that the number of weeks of clinical practice varies

from less than 6 weeks to more than 25 weeks, but the highest percentage of students

experience 15–16 weeks in schools.

In Scotland, the overall aim of courses of initial teacher education is to prepare stu-

dents to become competent and thoughtful practitioners who are committed to high

quality teaching for all pupils. This will be accomplished through the acquisition of

the competences that encompass knowledge, understanding, critical thinking and

practical skills. The initial teacher education in Scotland is provided by teacher edu-

cation institutes, in partnership with schools and education authorities. The duration

of teacher preparation there is (4) academic years of full time study or equivalent

part-time study. Courses prepared for this purpose contain independent studies, pro-

fessional studies, subject studies and school experience. They are delivered using a

variety of teaching and learning approaches, including independent study, information

technology and fieldwork. School experience provides students with the skills,

understanding and content being developed in the courses, especially, skills in class

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

TABLE 17.2 Distribution of credit hours for programs of teacher preparation in the USA

General Professional

studies Major studies Clinical Total

*P M S P M S P M S PMSP MS

Bachelor's 51 51 52 37 38 39 31 28 24 15 14 14 134 131 129

Post- 42 42 42 33 32 32 32 28 26 23 12 12 115 112 109

graduate

* P: Primary M: middle S: Secondary

management and curriculum matters, which are best developed in schools. At least

30 weeks must be devoted to school experience. More than half of it occurs in the

final two years of the program (Hopkins, 1989).

Ongoing teacher education in Scotland puts heavy emphasis on school-focused

activities and on school-focused development, providing opportunities for:

●The modeling and demonstration of new techniques.

●Concrete suggestions on how to apply new teaching techniques.

●Practice in non-evaluative environments.

●The provision of immediate classroom feedback.

In Germany, teaching preparation extends to 5 years, of which theoretical studies

take usually 3 years inclusive of academic and educational courses, and the last two

years are spent in field training. However, that training isn't continuous but is

distributed over the course, some during theoretical studies and some after their

completion. After the completion of this training, students sit for an exam, which

qualifies them to enter the teaching profession. The content of the theoretical program

at university includes:

●academic content;

●discipline teaching content;

●general education content; and

●educational psychology.

The student is required to specialize in two academic disciplines, one as a major

and the other as a minor, the two combined comprise of 40% of all the teaching hours

(ISB, 1993).

In Bavaria, one of the German states, there is an academy of in-service teacher

training that coordinates the in-service teacher training of all teachers in Bavaria. It

works in collaboration with the State Institute of School Education and

Educational Research and School Supervisory Service. The Academy carries out

the in-service training at the centralized level. This supplemented by activities at

regional and local lev els. Every two years an interdisciplinary program is developed

that considers current education and social questions and encourages their discus-

sion in the classroom.

In Taiwan, there are normal universities, which prepare secondary teachers, teachers'

colleges, which prepare elementary and pre-school teachers, and general universities,

which prepare both kinds of teachers. Teacher preparation courses include general

courses, education professional courses, and specialized courses. All graduates who

have completed the aforementioned courses are supposed to fulfill the internship

253

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

TABLE 17.3 Weeks spent by teaching students in classrooms

Less

than More

Average 6% 7–8% 9–10% 11–12% 13–14% 15–16% 17–24% than 25

Bachelors 14.5 0 0.3 11 18.4 21.2 39.5 6.1 3.1

Post graduate 15.6 0 1.3 11.5 16.8 16.3 36.7 8.3 8.8

254

requirement in primary or secondary schools or kindergartens for one year. There are

many new trends in teacher preparation in Taiwan:

●Upgrading of teacher education to the graduate level

●Integration of the added practicum with teacher preparation courses

●Establishment of a teacher career ladder and differential staff system

●Establishment of a teacher certificate renewal system through further

studies

●Shifting emphasis from teaching how to teach to how to learn

●Establishing a new teacher education system for the computer age

(Wa et al., 2001)

In Jordan, there are two main streams of teacher preparation program: class teacher,

for those who will teach one of the first three grades all subjects, and field-teacher,

for those who will teach pupils in one discipline area for grades 4–10. The two

streams have the same contents (general courses, academic courses, educational

courses, and teaching practice), but a significant difference in the number of credit

hours for each of these components is found from one university to the other.

Table 17.4 shows the number of credit hours required for class teachers related to

each of these components in the public Jordanian universities (Hassan, 2001).

Table 17.4 shows that there are big differences between the four components of

class teacher programs in these universities. The average reveals that the education

component is predominant followed by the academic component. This is not the case

in the United States in which the general studies are predominant (see Table 17.2).

In the field-teacher program, graduates are educated to be teachers in the follow-

ing fields: Arabic Language, English Language, Mathematics, Science, Islamic

Education, Social Studies, Arts, and Vocational Education.

Parallel to these programs, the Ministry of Education and public universities have

established a program to promote the qualifications of all teachers holding a

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

TABLE 17.4 Distribution of credit hours of classroom teacher programs in

Jordanian public universities

General Academic Educational Teaching

University courses courses courses practice Total

Jordan 36 51 39 12 126

Hashemite 33 51 48 6 132

Yarmouk 21 72 39 6 132

Mu'tah 31 39 60 9 130

Al-Albait 36 15 75 3 126

Al-Husein 27 39 60 6 126

Average 30.7 44.5 53.5 7 128.7

Note: Teaching practice courses are included within the education courses and it has been separated here for purposes of

clarity.

community college diploma to enable them to obtain the BA degree. The teachers study

about (80) credit hours, with minimum general courses, less educational and academic

courses, and take no teaching practice, because they are teachers already. However, this

program has faced much criticism and it has been generally felt that it held no real merit

for increasing instructional performance instead only helping to increase the salaries of

the graduates. The ministry, in cooperation with the Human Resource Development

Center in Jordan, has conducted several evaluative studies of this program.

El-Sheikh's (1994) study "Impact Evaluation of the Higher Certification Program

at the Public Universities in Jordan" investigated the extent to which the in-service

higher certification program has been successful in building up teaching competence

of basic education teachers from the point of view of the teachers, the principals, and

the faculty members. Classroom sessions (lectures) were observed, and interviews

with school principals and faculty members were carried out. The findings showed an

improvement in graduates' capabilities to use examples, instructional aids, different

educational methods as well as accepting students' views. Graduates also displayed

mastery of the content of the program in Arabic language, Islamic Studies and Social

Studies. However, mastery of content was rated weak to medium in Mathematics,

Physical Education, Sciences, Arts, Vocational Education, and Music. In general, the

academic courses in the program were not tailored to teachers' academic needs in

schools, but were there fulfill the needs of the programs being undertaken at univer-

sity. In fact, some courses taken at university were unsuited to resolving school needs

and were therefore useless. Some of these programs suffered from the absence of a

common understanding among the stakeholders of the aims and objectives of the pro-

gram. The theoretical part of the program was predominant and it emphasized the

written test, which evaluates memorization of the matter rather than understanding it.

Hassan's (2001) study, "In-service Teacher preparation and certification, and train-

ing in Jordan" used similar methodology to Al-Sheikh. The findings were consistent

with the findings of most of the previous evaluation studies in this field (El-Sheikh,

1994; Aghbar and Shboul, 1996; Al-Khawaldeh, 1996; El-sheikh et al ., 1996; Al-

Smadi, 1999). Specifically, these programs indicated that:

The in-service training program contributed significantly to the achievement of

the education reform's goals in the areas of preparing teachers to handle new curric-

ula and textbooks.

The two programs of certification and training contributed to the improvement of

teaching practices of teachers. Although most of the interviewed officials felt that the

programs had little impact on teacher's work. School principals, on the other hand,

believed that the programs had significant impact on teacher's work.

Both programs suffered from the lack of clearly stated objectives, lack of balance

between factual and practical knowledge with dominance for factual knowledge, and

insufficient use of evaluation strategies.

Training materials were not related to the actual training needs of teachers. Teacher

preparation programs had a sufficient common core of educational courses both in

class teacher and field teacher programs. But they lack coherence and balance with

regard to the academic part in the field teacher program. There is much variance in

255

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

256

courses at universities. Generally, this part is relevant and appropriate to Jordanian

school curricula and subject of study in most cases.

In light of these two studies, the Higher Education Council in Jordan ceased the

field-teacher program, and moved in the direction of using the Consecutive Model,

which relies on preparing teachers academically in a particular discipline first, then

qualifying them through another one-year program of (24–30) credit hours, which

qualifies them to teach.

Consequently, problems arose between educators and policy/decision makers;

including, that the two studies were conducted on in-service teachers who are

required to take about (80) credit hours in addition to their community college qual-

ification, while, pre-service students completed (132) credit hours. Furthermore, the

quality of in-service students tends to be inferior to those at the pre-service level,

based on their GPA in the "Tawjihi" exam (end of the secondary stage exam).

Moreover, the in-service program didn't include field practice and therefore have no

impact on already acquired poor teaching habits. In addition, the motivation for both

groups is quite different as the former focuses on increasing their salary while the lat-

ter is more concerned about attaining a quality teaching credential for the purpose of

pursuing a career in teaching.

In the light of the above arguments, it is necessary to investigate the effect of

the Council's decision by comparing the following groups for teacher perform-

ance: Holders of a BA academic degree, holders of a field-teacher BA degree, and

holders of a BA academic degree in addition to a diploma in education after the

BA. In this regard, the current study has been conducted to answer the following

questions:

●Are there statistically significant differences among the 3 groups of teachers from

their viewpoint of their teaching effectiveness?

●Are there statistically significant differences among the 3 groups of teachers

from the students' viewpoint of their teaching effectiveness?

●Are there statistically significant differences among the 3 groups of teachers from

the school principals' viewpoint of their teaching effectiveness?

IMPORTANCE OF THE CURRENT STUDY

The importance of this study lies in answering a set of questions related to the

process of preparing pre-service teachers and determining the best methods that can

be used within the Jordanian environment to fulfill this task. Also it can save the

large sums of money that the government will spend if the results reveal that the

integrative model of teacher preparation is better than the consecutive model.

These savings will come through shortening the period of study to 4 years rather

than 5. Furthermore, this will provide a model to be followed in decision making

methodology in the context of educational policy and can be employed in lieu of

generally misleading impressions to reach dependable, credible findings.

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

METHODOLOGY

Population and sample of the study

The study included all teachers in schools in the Zarka and Al-Badia Al-Shamalia

Directorates of Education in Jordan. There were 6456 male and female teachers that

were distributed as shown in Table 17.5

For the purpose of this study, 30 male and female schools were randomly selected

from these directorates. Opinions of all school principals, 3 teachers in each school

from each teacher group, as well as 10 students for each teacher were surveyed. The

sample group was: 30 school principals, 90 teachers and 900 students.

Instrumentation

Three primary instruments were constructed for this study:

Student teacher questionnaire: It consisted of 5 questions related to basic areas of

a teacher's tasks:

A The degree to which the students benefit from the teacher.

B The degree to which the teacher mastered the course content.

C The teacher's use of suitable teaching methods.

D The teacher's methods in dealing with students and classroom problems (aca-

demic and discipline).

E The teacher's evaluation of students.

Teacher questionnaire: It consisted of the last 4 issues on the student questionnaire,

together with one that changed from the degree to which the students benefit from

the teacher, to the teacher's ability to plan his/her teaching. It was considered that stu-

dents were able to judge the quantity of benefit obtained from the teacher but weren't

able to judge his/her ability to plan. On the other hand, teachers and school principals

were more able to judge the teacher's ability to plan his/her teaching, but weren't able

to judge the degree to which the students benefited from him.

School Principal questionnaire: Principals were asked to answer the same questions

which the teachers were given.

Respondents were asked to answer these questions on a 5 point Likert scale ranging

from excellent to very weak. Each level of response was given a certain number as

follows: excellent (5), very good (4), good (3), weak (2), very weak (1). The respon-

dents were asked to assign one of these numbers for each criterion.

257

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

TABLE 17.5 Teacher distribution according to their qualifications

BA  Diploma Field

BA in education teacher Other Total

Zarqa 2534 582 846 1044 5006

Al-Badia Al-Shamalia 817 32 258 343 1450

Total 3351 614 1104 1387 6456

258

Validity and reliability of the instruments

In order to achieve the validity criterion for these instruments, the education literature

was reviewed to determine teachers' effectiveness (El-Sheikh, 1994; Hassan, 2001;

National Middle School Association, 2001; Al-Musawi, 2003). Then five criteria

were selected to judge teacher's performance:

●Teacher's ability to plan for teaching.

●Teacher's mastery of the course content.

●Teacher's use of varied teaching methods.

●Teacher's methods in dealing with students and classroom problems (academic

and discipline).

●Teacher's evaluation methods.

These areas were presented to 6 experts in teacher education at Al-Isra Private

University and 3 faculty members at the Hashemite University. They all agreed on

using these criteria to judge teacher performance, but 4 of them suggested a change

in the first criterion about "planning to teach" by replacing it with the first criterion

for students, which is "the degree to which students benefit from their teachers". This

suggestion was taken up. These procedures were sufficient to consider these instru-

ments valid in measuring teachers' effectiveness.

As for the reliability of these instruments, they were first applied to pilot samples,

which consisted of 90 male and female students, 30 male and female teachers, and

10 male and female school principals. Two weeks later, the questionnaires were

applied again on the same sample and the reliability coefficient of the 3 question-

naires were computed and found to be: 82%, 87%, and 84% for students, teachers,

and school principals' questionnaires respectively. These values are considered ade-

quate for the purposes of the study.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The means, and standard deviations were computed for teachers'self-assessments for

each question separately and for all questions together, and are shown in Table 17.6.

Table 17.6 shows that teachers' self-assessment was generally high. It exceeded 4

(very good) in 4 out of 5 questions, and it was lower than this only in the 4th ques-

tion, which is related to the teacher's methods in dealing with classroom problems. In

order to know the significant differences among the means of teachers' self-assess-

ments in the 5 areas in general, a Multivariate analysis of variance was conducted and

it was found that there were statistically significant differences at ( 0.05) among

the three groups of teachers in their self-assessments in the five areas. In order to

determine in which areas these differences are, Univariate F-tests were conducted

and it was found that there were statistically significant differences at ( 0.05)

among the teachers self-assessments in general and in the planning for teaching,

using varied appropriate teaching methods, and dealing with students and classroom

problems. Scheffe's test was used for post-hoc comparisons and it was found that

teachers from the second group (BA-academic) did not excel in any of the 5 areas on

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

the instrument. However, the first group (field teachers) excelled over the second

group in the areas of planning for teaching and dealing with students and classroom

problems, and over the third group (BA and Diploma in education) in the planning

for teaching. On the other hand, the third group excelled over the first group in the

area of dealing with students and classroom problems and over the second group in

the areas of using varied teaching methods, and dealing with students and classroom

problems (not in planning). As for the overall mean, the first and third group teach-

ers excelled over the second group teachers. However, there were no statistically sig-

nificant differences at ( 0.05) between the first and third groups of teachers in

their self-assessment.

The second question of the study related to students' assessment of teachers, and

means and standard deviations were computed for each question separately and for

the questions as a whole, as shown in Table 17.7

Table 17.7 shows that students' assessment of teachers was generally high, as it

exceeded 4 (very good) in all areas, which is higher than the teachers' assessment of

themselves. In order to know the significant differences among the means of the stu-

dents' assessments of their teachers in the 5 areas as a whole, Multivariate Analysis

of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted and it was found that there were statistically

significant differences at ( 0.05) in the students' assessment of teachers among

the 3 groups in the 5 areas included in the instrument as a whole. In order to deter-

mine in which areas these differences are, Univariate F-test was conducted and it was

found that there were statistically significant differences at ( 0.05) among the

means of the students' assessment of teachers in general, and in the areas of using

appropriate teaching methods, dealing with students and classroom problems, and

students' evaluation. Scheffe's test was used for post-hoc comparisons and it was

found that teachers from the second group did not excel in any of the five areas of the

instrument as seen by the students. Meanwhile the first group excelled over the sec-

ond group in 3 areas: The use of appropriate teaching methods, dealing with students

and classroom problems, and students'evaluation. On the other hand, the third group

didn't excel over the first group in any area, but excelled over the second group in the

area of dealing with students and classroom problems. As for the overall mean, the

first and third group teachers excelled over the second group teachers.

259

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

TABLE 17.6 Means and standard deviations of the teachers' self assessment of their performance

1 2 3 Total

MSDMSFMSDMSD

Q1 4.74 0.046 4.56 0.01 4.25 0.11 4.559 0.27

Q2 4.68 0.014 4.55 0.15 4.58 0.01 4.600 0.25

Q3 4.17 0.068 3.95 0.27 4.28 0.06 4.134 0.39

Q4 3.81 0.230 3.52 0.27 4.11 0.03 3.813 0.48

Q5 4.17 0.084 4.14 0.26 4.21 0.15 4.179 0.40

Total 21.58 1.255 20.42 2.56 21.56 1.29 21.185 1.40

260

To answer the third question of the study that is related to the school principals'

assessment of teachers means and standard deviations were computed for each ques-

tion separately and for the question, as shown in Table 17.8

Table 17.8 shows that school principals' assessment of teachers was generally

high, as it exceeded 4 (Very good) in all areas, but was lower than 4 for BA holders

in question 3 which is related to the use of appropriate teaching methods. To deter-

mine the significant difference among the means of school principals' assessments of

teachers in the 5 areas as a whole, Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was

conducted and it was found that there were statistically significant differences at

( 0.05) in the school principals' assessment of teachers among the 3 groups of

teachers in the five areas included in the instrument as a whole. In order to determine

in which areas these differences are, Univariate F-test was conducted and it was

found that there were statistically significant differences at ( 0.05) among the

means of the school principals' assessment of teachers in general, and in the areas of

planning for teaching, the mastery of course content and using appropriate teaching

methods Scheffe's test was used for post-hoc comparisons and it was found that

teachers from the second group did not excel in any of the five areas of the instru-

ment as seen by the principals. The third group excelled over the second group in

2 areas: The use of appropriate teaching methods and students' evaluation and over

the first group in the area of dealing with students and classroom problems. On the

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

TABLE 17.7 Means and standard deviations of the students' assessment of teachers' performance

1 2 3 Total

MSDMSDMSFMSD

Q1 4.51 0.78 4.46 0.84 4.55 0.75 4.51 0.79

Q2 4.78 0.56 4.71 0.62 4.76 0.57 4.75 0.58

Q3 4.55 0.77 4.34 0.91 4.44 0.66 4.45 0.79

Q4 4.53 0.88 4.06 1.13 4.37 0.83 4.32 0.98

Q5 4.61 0.66 4.47 0.86 4.53 0.69 4.54 0.75

Total 23.99 2.54 22.04 2.57 22.67 2.66 22.57 2.62

TABLE 17.8 Means and standard deviations of the school principals' assessment of teachers performance

1 2 3 Total

MSDMSDMSDMSD

Q1 4.41 0.40 4.10 0.78 4.60 0.32 4.39 0.73

Q2 4.20 0.51 4.57 0.39 4.60 0.25 4.46 0.64

Q3 4.23 0.46 3.63 0.31 4.17 0.56 4.01 0.71

Q4 4.30 0.42 4.20 0.65 4.43 0.25 4.31 0.66

Q5 4.27 0.48 3.97 0.52 4.13 0.53 4.12 0.72

Total 21.47 6.40 20.48 5.15 21.93 3.10 21.29 2.27

other hand, the first group didn't excel over the third group in any area, but excelled

over the second group in the area of students'evaluation. As for the overall mean, the

first and third group teachers excelled over the second group teachers.

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

This study aimed at comparing three different methods of teacher preparation. It

compared teachers who hold BA degrees (field teachers) with teachers who hold BA

in their major and teachers who hold an education diploma certificate with their BA

degree. To achieve this end, the opinions of teachers, their students, and their school

principals were surveyed.

The findings showed agreement at times and disagreement at others when assess-

ing the 3 groups of teachers in different areas by teachers, students, and school prin-

cipals. Concerning the benefit gained by students from teachers, students didn't

distinguish between one group of teachers and another, as they didn't see there were

clear differences among the 3 groups of teachers in this area.

Concerning the planning for teaching, only the teachers and the school principals

were asked about this. The students weren't asked because they didn't have access to

the teachers' preparation booklets nor to the methods used by them. The field teach-

ers (first group) assessed themselves higher than the teachers in the other two groups.

The teachers from the third group (BA and educational diploma) assessed them-

selves higher than the teachers in the second group (BA-academic). The school prin-

cipals were in agreement with the third group teachers that they were more capable

of planning for teaching than the second group teachers, but didn't agree with the

first group teachers. This is in accordance with the previous findings that school

principals believe that third group teachers are the best. However, the teachers and

the students weren't in agreement with them about that.

Concerning the area of mastery of content, there were no statistically significant

differences among teachers in the three groups from the viewpoint of teachers and

students, but school principals indicated that the third group teachers (BA with edu-

cational diploma) excelled over the first group teachers (Field teacher) at the level of

( 0.05). This finding calls for further research about the reasons that made the

school principals the only group to have this opinion, while neither the teachers nor

their students saw it to be true?

In the area of using the appropriate teaching methods, the students and school

principals alike were in agreement that the first group teachers excelled over the sec-

ond group teachers. Teachers and school principals were in agreement that teachers

of the third group excelled over the second group teachers.

Concerning dealing with students and classroom problems, students and teachers

were in agreement that teachers in the first and third groups excelled over the second

group teachers. However, the students indicated that the first group teachers excelled

over the third group teachers. Meanwhile teachers indicated that the third group

teachers excelled over the first group teachers. School principals didn't assess any

group more highly than the other.

261

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS

262

Concerning the ability to evaluate students appropriately, students were the only

ones to indicate that first group teachers excelled over the second group teachers.

Meanwhile, there were no statistically significant differences in teachers' self-

assessments or the school principals' assessment of them.

If we were to take all these factors collectively for students, teachers, and school

principals, we would deduce that students and teachers see that teachers of the first

and third group teachers are in fact superior to the second group teachers. As for

school principals, they believe that the third group teachers are more competent than

teachers in the first and second groups. The findings didn't indicate that the first or

third group teachers are more capable than the others from the viewpoint of students,

teachers, or school principals.

One may conclude from these findings that there was similarity between the first

and third groups of teachers, but they excel over the second group teachers in gen-

eral. These results can be understood in light of the nature of preparation each group

undertook. Teachers of the second group were not familiar with the educational ideas

related to teaching methods, student evaluation, or dealing with students and class-

room problems since the only source of experience for them is on-the-job experi-

ences. It would seem this is insufficient to prepare teachers in various areas. Hence,

the superiority of the first and third groups is due to the fact that they were prepared

academically as well as professionally.

In spite of the fact that the third group teachers were assessed to have mastered the

academic content more than the first group teachers, this finding has not been veri-

fied because if true, teachers of the second group are supposed to have excelled over

the first group teachers also because they have the same academic level as the

third group. This superiority was not substantiated by teachers themselves or by stu-

dents. This may have been caused by the Halo effect which made school principals

assess the third group higher in this area because they hold a higher academic degree

than the other two groups. Thus, the issue of superiority of teachers who hold an edu-

cational diploma with their BA degree over those who hold field teacher BA degrees

stays unresolved, and needs to be studied further in order to be clarified.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

In the light of the above findings, the following recommendations can be suggested:

There is a need to continue the field teacher program, but with some modifications

of its components to include a greater percentage of academic courses (not less than

60% of the credit hours). The content to be included in the courses could be agreed

upon by the faculty members in the faculty of education and other specialized facul-

ties that offer such courses. A part of the program should be developed for studying

the course content that the student teacher will be teaching after graduation.

The findings of this study show clearly that the programs where educational and

academic courses are taught simultaneously excelled over the programs that include

academic courses alone followed by educational programs. But the findings did not

indicate which of the Integrative or the Consecutive models is more preferred.

MAHMOUD AL-WEHER AND MAJED ABU-JABER

The conclusion from this is that there is need for further research to determine

which model is preferred in order to help decision-makers to implement instructional

programs.

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ABSTRACT

This paper will argue for the importance of the mentoring process in pre-service

training and addresses specific questions as to the roles and expectations of the key

figures in the student teaching practicum in order to ensure successful outcomes. To

gain an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of different programs, a

cross country analysis has been performed, which includes models from Canada, the

United States, and Hong Kong. Utilizing document analysis and the author's

narrative inquiry of her experience as a university facilitator, this paper demonstrates

that the essence of a successful teaching practicum is effective mentor-student

teacher relationships and the forging of a close association between schools and the

academic world. A conceptual model for an ideal student teaching program is

presented and discussed, centering on the key players: school coordinator, mentor

teacher, field experience associate and university facilitators working closely

together with common goals for the student teacher. The conclusions reached should

help promote a greater awareness for the significance of an effectively prepared and

supported mentoring program for the Bachelor of Education level.

Rationale for the Paper

In order for teachers to be sufficiently prepared for the challenges of the teaching

profession, it is vital that student teachers receive comprehensive pre-service training.

According to Vonk (1993) the teaching profession starts with pre-service training, induc-

tion, and continued in-service training. How to better prepare student teachers for the

world of the classroom is important, as it is this stage that determines induction success

and teacher retention. It is considered that "the performance in student teaching is the sin-

gle most important criterion for predicting success in inservice [sic] teachers" (Day and

Brightwell, 1978 as cited in Weller, 1983, p. 213). Student teaching is considered the piv-

otal component of a teacher education program. The practicum or student teaching is

"when theory meets practice and idealism meets reality" (Fallin and Royse, 2000,

para. 2). Field experience is perhaps the most vital element in the education of student

teachers. Through their practicum, student teachers learn and reflect upon the roles and

responsibilities of being a teacher (University of Alberta, 2004b).

A synthesis of literature and research regarding student teaching practicum

programs in varying subject areas is included in order to provide information on what

267

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18. MENTORING AS THE KEY TO A

SUCCESSFUL STUDENT TEACHING PRACTICUM:

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 267–282.

268

makes a successful teacher practicum. A comparative analysis of post-secondary

teacher education practica is made in three jurisdictions: Canada, the United States,

and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR). The University of

Alberta's (Canada) student teacher program is used as a reference point. The purpose

is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches or models, and to

utilize research and current programs to strengthen both student teacher practica and

schools-university relationships. The mentoring process is evaluated using the

following guiding questions: (1) What strategies do successful mentor teachers use to

approach student teachers? (2) How can field experience become a success for

student teachers? (3) How do different models outline the roles and responsibilities

of key players? (4) Which qualities should be encouraged in student teachers? (5)

How can communication between the university and the teaching profession

improve?

A hybrid model for the student teaching program is outlined. This model deals

with major responsibilities for the mentor teacher who is considered to be an

exemplary teacher, with a university supervisor specializing in a curriculum area

and one with a general pedagogy background (or the combination of the two

criteria), as well as a school coordinator. Furthermore, an adequate time frame

should be allowed for the practicum in order to enable the student teacher to gain the

requisite skills.

THREE PRACTICUM PROGRAMS

The University of Alberta Field Experience Program

The University of Alberta's 2003–2004 student teaching program uses the

Collaborative Schools Model (CSM), with the principles of the "whole school

experience" and of "reflective practice" (University of Alberta, 2004a). The reasoning

behind this approach is:

The whole school experience for field experiences is seen as a means

through which we can better prepare Student Teachers to meet the chal-

lenges of the profession and is a movement away from the traditional

apprenticeship model of teacher education. Such a focus provides oppor-

tunities for Student Teachers to visit a number of classrooms within the

school and observe a variety of teaching styles and techniques. A whole

school experience, therefore, allows Student Teachers and school staff to

extend the field experience beyond the walls of the individual classroom.

(University of Alberta, 2004a,

"The Whole School Experience" section, para. 1)

The other guiding principle is reflective practice, characterized as "the ability to

stand apart from the self: where students (and faculty) are asked to critically examine

their actions and the context of those actions" (Berlak and Berlak, 1981 as cited in

University of Alberta, 2004a). To enable student teachers to reflect on their

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responsibilities and performance, they are required to keep a Professional Reflective

Notebook, issues from which are discussed with the mentor teacher and university

facilitator. In addition, student teachers are encouraged to develop both Professional

Growth Plans and Professional Teaching Portfolios.

Duties and responsibilities for field placement are provided to school personnel in

handbooks, and all information is available on the field experiences web site.

Arrangements for student teaching placements are made by the Undergraduate

Student Services office, specifically the field experience associate. The University of

Alberta field experience model incorporates four vital professional components in

the education of the student teacher. These are mentor teachers, school coordinators,

university facilitators, and field experience associates. Together, these four players

are the key to the CSM model (University of Alberta, 2004d).

The mentor teacher provides front line advice, support, and feedback to the student

teacher. Mentors assist student teachers in developing classroom management skills,

gaining familiarity with teaching resources, lesson planning, and reflective practice.

Mentors are tasked with providing guidance and modeling professional behaviours

through the development of supportive relationships, and are responsible for holding

the key evaluatory role.

The duties of the school coordinator include identifying qualified mentor teachers

amongst school professional staff and providing support to mentor and student

teachers. Acting as a bridge between the school and university, school coordinators

are charged with the practical and professional arrangements for student teachers

within the host school. Coordinators, acting at the school level, ensure that student

teachers are integrated into the school community and are involved with required

school projects and activities.

The university facilitator's role is that of liaison between the university and school.

Facilitators ensure that all components of the field experience model are functioning

as prescribed. University facilitators play important roles as mediators and enable

open communication between all parties. Frequent dialogue with mentor and student

teachers is crucial to providing a range of supportive activities. These buttress the

efforts of the mentor teacher in the areas of reflection, classroom skills, feedback,

and evaluation. Facilitators are required to observe student teachers and provide

feedback. As of 2004–2005, facilitators are obliged to visit with student and mentor

teachers on an individual basis each week. Weekly meetings with the entire student

teaching cohort are also vital elements in the field experience model where reflections

are shared and observations discussed. Further, facilitators meet the field experience

associate once every two weeks at one of the facilitator's assigned schools to discuss

concerns and questions. Facilitators undertake informal evaluations of student

teachers unless a formal evaluation is deemed necessary (University of Alberta,

2004e). Communication within the student teaching cohort is [A1]stressed as a

means of ensuring a supportive and collaborative atmosphere.

The field experience associate is the university's coordinator who provides

leadership for facilitators. The associate's task is to ensure that the different levels of

the field experience model are working in harmony with each other. Working closely

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MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

270

with the university facilitator, associates are available to address concerns of all

parties and maintain close communication with schools. Associates also play a vital

function in developing and implementing field experience policies. Field experience

associates, as of the 2004–2005 academic year, are advised to make regular visits to

each school in their zone.

At the University of Alberta there are four routes to the Bachelor of Education

degree, which include two professional terms. In Alberta, a Bachelor of Education

degree is usually required to teach in schools under provincial jurisdiction. The

following four routes are available: a 1 3 program, where students enter the Faculty

of Education in the second year; 2  2, where students transfer from affiliated

colleges; a 5-year joint degree program; and a 2-year after-degree program

(Undergraduate Academic Affairs Council, 2004). 1

The Bachelor of Education program offers various education core courses where

students can specialize in secondary or elementary education. The first student teach-

ing program is the Introductory Professional Term (IPT) lasting five weeks. Week one

of IPT is an orientation and participation week. Between weeks two and five, teaching

time is increased to 50% and students are required to teach three to four connected

lessons in a curriculum area. The focus for student teaching is "Planning instruction,

teaching lessons, managing the classroom, accommodating students with special

needs, and assessing student progress" in both the courses and the Field Experience

(University of Alberta, 2004c, para. 2). Reflective journals and self-evaluation are

crucial elements in both IPT and APT practicum placements.

The Advanced Professional Term (APT) lasts nine weeks. During this term the

student teachers gradually increase their teaching time up to 80%. They are required to

plan a lesson and teach units of study. Areas to master include classroom management,

planning, individualized teaching, different teaching methodologies, and assessment of

student learning. APT students enrolled in the special education minor are also asked

to plan and conduct a remedial assistance program with an individual special needs

student. This involves approximately eight to ten, one-on-one sessions.

The Professional Development School Model

The Professional Development School (PDS) Model for teaching is one that is found

in the United States. A definition used by the Fairleigh Dickinson University (n.d.) of

a PDS School is:

an educational institution exemplifying a learning community which pro-

vides a productive and rewarding professional environment for staff, an

effective learning environment for students, and a working partnership

with parents and community in support of learning for all members of

the school community. (p. 4)

The analogy of medical school teaching hospitals is often used with the PDS field

experience (Darling-Hammond, 1989, Goodlad, 1990; Holmes, 1990; Kennedy,

1990; Zimpher, 1990 as cited in Abdal-Haqq, 1991). The supporters of PDS make the

case for the field experience component of teacher education to be conducted in the

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second year of the graduate level program, with pre-service teachers placed within

schools as part of a professional requirement. Proponents argue for the inclusion of

exceptional leading teachers as part of the instructional staff at selected schools.

These core teachers act in the same manner as in Collaborative pre-service teacher

education, and are one of the keystones of the PDS Model (Huling, 1998). Goals of

PDS are to strengthen pre-service and in-service teacher education, to improve

theory, and to serve as structural archetypes for positive and effective cooperation

between the teaching profession and administration. Various models are found in the

United States, such as the Dispersion Model, and the Partner School Model. The PDS

Model creates the best synergy between schools and the university (Georgia College

and State University, 2004).

Sandholtz and Wasserman (2001) conducted a study comparing traditional methods

to the PDS Model. It was found that both ranked highly, however cooperating teachers

and student teachers had enhancement ideas for the traditional program that matched

the descriptors of the PDS program. One point suggested is that the practicum be

longer. Traditional teacher programs provided insufficient time and teaching experi-

ence. They "oversimplified the realities of teaching" and left beginning teachers

thinking they were inadequately qualified (Lanier and Little, 1986, Griffin, 1989;

Bullough, 1990; as cited in Sandholtz and Wasserman, 2001, p. 54). The PDS Model

requires graduate programs to have either a year-long rigorous student teaching or an

internship (Cobb, 1999). Students in both the PDS and the traditional program are in

their fifth-year programs that have a bachelor's degree and have passed exams

(Sandholtz and Wasserman, 2001). The PDS program includes six extra weeks in the

practicum. Notable differences exist in the two programs. According to the PDS

program, the student teachers arrive at schools at the start of the school year, observe

at the beginning of the year, and they are involved with end of year activities. Teachers

noted the benefit of starting when pupils do, so that student teachers witness how the

classroom climate is set at the start of the year in areas such as classroom manage-

ment and routines. They also partake in staff activities such as staff meetings, and

parent meetings. The Sandholtz and Wasserman study found that the length of the

PDS program provides pre-service teachers "time to experience and work through

common problems while they have a strong support system" (p. 59). Although the

traditional programs overlap with the PDS one, and students take the same required

courses as the traditional program, the traditional program offers courses before the

practicum lasting eight to 16 weeks, with little or no "staged entry into teaching

responsibilities" (p. 62).

The Professional Development School model is moving towards shared super-

vision by university supervisors and cooperating teachers, with the latter taking on

greater observation and assessment responsibilities and the former becoming more

of an integral part of the school structure and professional staff (Melser, 2004).

Furthermore, the PDS program, as compared to the traditional model, provides for

expanded university supervisor and cooperating teacher duties and support for the

pre-service teacher, with incremental increase of student teaching responsibilities

(Sandholtz and Wasserman, 2001). First, the university supervisor operates mainly

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MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

272

out of the school, enabling more student teacher observation, communication with

mentor teachers, courses and seminars. The seminars focus on problem areas. In the

PDS Model, the student teachers are observed weekly by the university and teacher

supervisors with multiple types of assessment. The same study highlighted that even

mentor teachers gained from increased university facilitator presence. Second, the

cooperating teacher's role is expanded and the duties intensified under the PDS

Model. They participate in instruction, direct the practicum, and collaborate in team

conferences. Importantly, cooperative teachers confer with the trainees. Third, it is

the cooperating teachers who arrange for the student teachers to work and observe

other mentors, thereby providing extra support. Although the Sandholtz and

Wasserman study found problems with both models, the above points were considered

to be beneficial to the student teacher as it allowed them to be better equipped to deal

with their future role.

Hong Kong models

The Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIED) and the Hong Kong University

(HKU) models are described in this study, with some elements from the Northcote

College of Education (NCE), and the Hong Kong Technical Teachers' College (TTC).

Student teachers at the HKIED begin their first field experience after half a year of

study at the institute (Tang, 2002). Initial school visits for observation and discussion

are followed by a period of school attachment for familiarization in classroom and

school activities and assisting mentor teachers. Student teachers are then assigned

periods of block practice, upon which their assessment is based, in which they

conduct classes, plan units and lessons, and become an integral part of the day-to-day

events and extra-curricular activities of the school (Hong Kong Institute of Education,

2002). The administration of the practicum at HKIED consists of different levels.

Overall guidance is the responsibility of the Center for Development of School

Partnership and Field Experience. Management is headed by the dean of the school,

then the program leader, followed by the program coordinator. Field experience is the

duty of the field experience coordinator while academic departments provide

the supervisory staff. A handbook is available for all participants in the field experi-

ence (teachers, student teachers, supervisors, and schools). Supervision is standard-

ized with a handbook and reporting form.

The role of the field experience coordinator is to put into practice the policies and

guidelines set out by the Center for Development of School Partnership and Field

Experience. Field experience coordinators organize working groups, which help set

out policies and procedures. Coordination of field experience amongst the parties

involved (schools, academic departments, student and mentor teachers) is primarily

the responsibility of the field experience coordinator. In essence, field experience

coordinators "… bridge theory with practice in field experience" (Fung, 2002, p. 6).

Field experience coordinators at the school level assign supervisors to the student

teachers. Supervisors usually assign student teachers according to their subject

speciality. At NCE and TTE, distinct supervisors are involved (Yeung and Watkins,

2000). The teaching practice supervisors (electives) are concerned with evaluating

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the abilities of student teachers in subject oriented teaching skills and knowledge

while teaching practice supervisors (methodology) are primarily concerned with

assessing the student teacher's general teaching abilities and aptitudes. HKIED also

utilized three supervisors, two subject supervisors and a general practicum

supervisor (Tang, 2002). Supervisors provide liaison with the school administration

and staff, support student teachers, monitor learning objectives, teaching strate-

gies, and learning outcomes, offer advice, engage in pre- and post-lesson

conferences, and, ultimately, assess and determine "the student teacher's readiness

and suitability to enter the profession" (HKIED, 2002, p. 9). Four supervisory visits,

two for each subject, are incorporated into the supervision schedule. Supervisors

complete a required Report Assessment form and grade the student. According to

Fung's survey (2000), the supervisor's role in supervision depends on context as

"… for final year students the supervisor is more important as gatekeeper while for

new students more for formative development, that means to give advice for devel-

opment and give assessment for gate-keeping" (p. 7). The two subject supervisors

and the practicum supervisor, who is in charge of general teaching supervision,

supervise the student. For supervisors, the most important factors in rating teaching

aptitude are: subject knowledge, enthusiasm, communications skills, teaching

methodologies, and classroom management. At NCE/TTC supervisors provide guid-

ance as well as assessment for student teachers (Yeung and Watkins, 2000).

Supervision, in general, is seen as an important part in providing direction for teacher

development as well as in assessment and offering feedback (Fung, 2000).

Form teachers in the NCE/TTC practicum are "… under no obligations to provide

supervision or guidance to their students" (Yeung and Watkins, 2000, p. 232). The

level of assistance from form teachers depends on the unique characteristics of each

school involved in the practicum. This is perhaps the greatest weakness of this model.

As Yeung and Watkins (2000) argue, the experience of expert teachers is invaluable

and can be of great benefit to students. At HKIED, link teachers are nominated at

each participating school. These teachers are the link between the institute and the

school. They ensure the smooth running of the field experience from the school end.

They also have the ability to request mentor training from the institute (HKIED,

2002, p. 10). Supporting teachers are the front line support and guidance for student

teachers. They observe student teachers at least once a week, offer pre- and post-les-

son discussion, and are involved in tripartite conferences with HKIED supervisors

and student teachers. Supporting teachers are not required to take part in formal

assessment. The HKIED School of Early Childhood Education's Institute Preschool

Professional Interface (IPPI) scheme involves the use of school principals as mentors

to student teachers but they are not in charge of assessment (Yip, 2003).

An alternate Hong Kong model is that provided by the Faculty of Education, Hong

Kong University (HKU). The overarching framework is that of School-University

Partnerships. Goals include: to create a "reciprocal, collaborative and developing

relationship with schools"; to encourage a "professional learning community"; to

foster school enhancement through the formation of school mentors; and to "provide

a holistic experience to student-teachers during their teaching practicum" with the

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MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

274

aide of teacher mentors and university tutors (University of Hong Kong, 2004a,

para. 1).

This partnership model's key players are the school principal or school practicum

coordinator, teacher mentors, and university tutors (University of Hong Kong,

2004b). The school administration provides preliminary groundwork by selecting

experienced teachers to become mentor teachers, and possibly by providing an

orientation session to student teachers. The principal or school coordinator provides

direction to the student teachers. Teacher mentors and university tutors are in charge

of providing mentoring and supervisory support, the former involving the attributes

of becoming a teacher, the latter dealing with specific classroom issues through

questioning teaching plans as they relate to learning outcomes (University of Hong

Kong, 2004b).

Teacher mentors have various mentor and manager roles. They provide student

teachers with opportunities for professional growth, they observe with comments,

they act as "role models, counsellors, critical friends, instructors, and managers"

(University of Hong Kong, 2004b, para. 4). Learning occasions are made possible

by the teacher mentors by allowing student teachers to observe their own teaching

through guided pre- and post-lesson discussions where the lesson plan focus,

objectives, learning activities, and outcomes are elaborated. This method follows

the Tyler rationale of curriculum planning (see Tyler, 1975). Mentor teachers also

make arrangements for student teachers to observe other teachers in a variety of

settings and get them involved in activities such as meetings. Both teacher mentors

and university tutors observe lessons and provide "tripartite conferences" or

individual verbal and or written feedback to the student teacher that they utilize in

their reflection (University of Hong Kong, 2004b, para. 4). Teacher mentors observe

student teacher lessons at least once a week, with the purposes of providing "form-

ative and constructive feedback" for further student teacher growth (University of

Hong Kong, 2004b, para. 15). Furthermore, lesson observations enable student

teachers to critically reflect based on the pre-lesson conference. When problems

arise, teacher mentors provide guidance and counselling.

University tutors are involved in the practicum process. Their main roles are: to

facilitate student teacher professional learning; to make supervisory visits to assist

the learning of teaching and to assess student teachers; to work with mentor teachers

in gaining a holistic understanding of the student teacher's progress; to conference; to

liaise with schools for forming a professional relationship; and to hold mentoring

workshops.

A PERSONAL NARRATIVE: BEING A

UNIVERSITY FACILITATOR AND

LEARNED EXPERIENCES

During the fall and winter semester, the author was a University Facilitator at the

University of Alberta. Her responsibilities revolved around seven schools and 25

student teachers enrolled in IPT or APT in different subject areas. The majority of

LYDIA PUNGUR

student teachers had good or excellent evaluations. The most successful ones

appeared to have some of the following attributes: strong planners and organizers,

hard-working, enthusiastic, open-minded (Willems et al ., 1986), and innovative.

One mentor teacher who had an APT student teacher (social studies major) with

tremendous growth as a professional and an excellent evaluation told the author that

they debriefed every day after school for over an hour, deliberating over future plans

and reflection on lessons. Both the teacher and student had innovative ideas that

seemed to enrich the lessons of the pre-service teacher. For example, during the first

observation, the teaching methodology was lecture. The student teacher asked for

ideas from the author. Because she also majored in social studies, she could provide

him with resources and strategies. The University of Alberta requires that students

employ various pedagogical methodologies in their teaching. That is why the student

tried structured group presentations, review games, and a teacher-led activity that

included paired work. This same student teacher reflected on classroom management

and was not afraid to shut down activities such as the game when the noise level rose.

He used a backup plan instead. His personal qualities and hard work and planning

helped him significantly.

Another APT student teacher (physical education major) also received a high

evaluation. Although the supervision was outside my subject area, the author

learned much about what makes an exemplary physical education teacher from this

pre-service teacher. First, she was positive in attitude and towards her students. In

her reflections and actions, she showed care towards each pupil. One school student

who was not physically inclined was encouraged privately by the student teacher.

Second, she reflected carefully, sharing her thoughts and reflective journal. At the

beginning, the student teacher was concerned with classroom management, but later

she was able to address these issues by using ideas from her observations and by

reflecting. For e xample, she used planned ignoring with a pupil who was formerly

suspended, and it was effective. Third, this student teacher was thorough in her

research and planning. The physical education teachers shared their resources,

which were utilized, as were outside manuals and the Internet. The plans led to a

well structured volleyball lesson with attendance, warm-up, skill demonstration,

paired activity, group activity, game, and closure (skill review). Lessons were var-

ied. Fourth, this student teacher volunteered for activities such as intramurals. Fifth,

she had good rapport with her supervisors, peers, and charges. A team approach

added to the student teacher's performance. In addition, her mentor teacher was a

strong role model and was supportive.

In the same department (physical education), one mentor teacher had three very

strong IPT students. Two worked together and were commended by the vice-principal.

The mentor teacher had much to do with their success, for the mentor-student teacher

relationship is symbiotic, promoting the development of both (Healy and Welchert,

1990 as cited in Vonk, 1993). The mentor teacher had high standards, he asked the

students to get involved during observation week with attendance, warm-up, and other

activities, as suggested by Willems et al. (1986). After structured teaching, the student

teachers were given continuous constructive feedback on how to improve. The mentor

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MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

276

teacher ensured that lesson planning was complete. The mentor's enthusiasm and

knowledge of the subject were evident, as was his coherent teaching philosophy.

There was one school coordinator whose qualities put her in the model category.

She was a vice-principal who taught part-time, and was available to carry on her

school co-ordinator role beyond the norm. She recruited the mentor teachers. At the

beginning of the term, she met the student teachers and informed them that they

could seek her advice. She was always available for meetings with the university

facilitator, which opened up the lines of communication, and participated in schedul-

ing as well as observations of other teachers. In addition the school coordinator

monitored the student teachers' progress by observing all the pre-service teachers for

some part of a lesson.

A HYBRID MODEL

Elements of different programs are included in a hybrid model. As indicated by the

Sandholtz and Wasserman (2001) research, the Professional Development School

(PDS) Model for teaching has many advantages. Therefore, many features of this

teacher pre-service program should be included in the model. One element is extend-

ing existing teaching practicum time past the traditional time frame. The average

practicum time in the U.S. is 14.5 weeks (Roth and Swail, 2000). Hynes-Dusel's

(1999) interviews of cooperating teachers revealed that they believed that the three

month field placements were too brief, and should be extended to a year. Another

feature to add from the PDS Model would be problem-solving seminars (Sandholtz

and Wasserman, 2001). Elements from the PDS and CSM providing the whole

school experience are also helpful in building a model with increased experience and

support. The Field Experience Coordinator would have duties identical to the CSM.

It is beneficial for student teachers to have both a subject area and a general

university supervisor, much like at HKIED with two subject supervisors and the

practicum supervisor. This would especially be true for the secondary school level,

where subject specializations are required. Although two supervisors are more costly

and labour intensive, the overarching goal is preparing the best calibre of teacher

education program. The author, in her role of university supervisor, saw the limits of

supervision outside her specialization. After conferencing with a music student

teacher she realized that it was hard to provide suggestions. A music specialist would

have been more effective in offering specific ideas, though the mentor teacher that is

matched up with the student teacher's major or minor ideally provides such support.

LYDIA PUNGUR

University Facilitator University Facilitator Mentor Teacher School Coordinator

(General Pedagogy) (Subject Specific/

Curriculum)

Field Experience Associate

University Student teacher School

Figure 18.1. Successful pre-service teaching depends on school-university partnerships.

Ongoing interaction between faculty members and teachers in professional

development contexts provides a reciprocal benefit. This growth in knowledge can

be fostered with formal opportunities for teachers to collaborate with faculty on

shared research, presentations, and publications like at Fairleigh Dickinson

University (2000). Partnerships would be created to solve a lack of reciprocal com-

munication between university channels and innovative pre-service or in-service

teachers. This is important in order to nullify critiques that university personnel are

detached from innovations in the field or realities. One study (Cornell, 2003) found

that even though most liaisons were practitioners, the opinion existed that the

liaisons and the university were not versed in classroom methodologies, nor were

the university activities useful. In another study, cooperating teachers felt that

student teachers were ill-prepared for their practica and that the university taught the

"ideal," not "reality" (Hynes-Dusel, 1999).

Studies in Hong Kong have supported the following major forms of school-

university partnerships (Day et al ., 2004): (a) at Hong Kong University, the School

University Partnership Evaluation Research Project (SUPER) revealed the benefits

to student teachers and teacher development as a whole of collaboration between

secondary schools and the university; (b) the School-University Partnership Scheme

(SUPS), and (c) the Unified Professional Development Project (UPDP) and

"Partnership Schools", where teacher fellows were offered mentorship programs.

The major benefits of school-university partnerships, as Day et al. noted, include

developing both student teachers and mentor teachers, and the system as a whole by

facilitating collaboration among teachers and between teachers and administrators.

These examples give weight to increased school-university partnerships.

The Importance of the Mentor Teacher

In a hybrid model, the role of the mentor teachers is central to the success of the

practicum. Cooperating teachers are considered to have the most effect on student

teachers during their field experience (Yee, 1969; Seperson and Joyce, 1973; Karmos

and Jacko, 1977; Alper and Retish, 1980; Copeland, 1980; Dispoto, 1980; Koehler,

1984, as cited in Mitchell, 1993). Mentoring goes beyond the passing on of technical

skills and information (Brown and McIntyre, 1988 as cited in Vonk, 1993). Mentors

assist the beginning teacher to develop their "own flexible repertory of teaching and

classroom management skills, to develop a proper insight in their pupils' learning

processes and a perspective on him/herself as a teacher" (p. 8). It is also the cooperat-

ing teacher's responsibility to introduce the student teacher to the school's require-

ments and regulations. Weasmer and Woods (2003) report that most cooperative

teachers participating in their study perceived their role as that of "models, mentors,

and guides" (p. 175). The successful teaching practicum must have at its core a well-

developed and successful mentor-student teacher relationship as studies indicate, "the

availability of the mentor to sustain regular, ongoing, and continuous support was

essential" (Yip, 2003, p. 40). Guidelines for the mentor teacher include (Fallin and

Royse, 2000): awareness of the university's program; finding policies and suggestions;

providing formative evaluation; offering constructive criticism and encouragement.

277

MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

278

Additional guiding principles support the student teacher (Willems et al ., 1986):

informing pupils about the additional teacher; creating space and providing resources;

discussing philosophies of teaching practice (example teaching methodology);

building open lines of communication with all the key players; handing over responsi-

bility gradually and with support; co-planning and giving demonstrations of various

teaching strategies.

Mentor teachers take on major responsibilities in adding to the development of pre-

service teachers, and therefore should ideally be exemplary teachers and should be

competent in the following areas: a cooperative approach; planning, "interpersonal

relations and conference skills;" evaluation methods; pedagogical techniques; class-

room management; and "professional role modeling" (Weller, 1983, p. 213). Criteria

for mentors are based primarily on their reputation as capable teachers with a coherent

philosophy of teaching, with achievements inter alia: content mastery, curriculum

planning, and professional development (Feiman-Nemser, 1996; Tillman, 2000 as

cited in Mullinix, 2002).

University facilitators

The role of the university facilitator is that of liaison, communicator, evaluator, and

resource person for the student teacher. In some models, facilitators arrange for the

placements (Willems et al ., 1986). In most models, university facilitators are the "go

between" for the university and the school. They act as personnel that conference

before, during, and after the practicum, with all the key players and with the student

teachers. After observing lessons, and during student teacher meetings with the

mentor teachers, they offer advice based on research and teaching experience. If

the role of the university facilitator is to go beyond that of advisor, they should evalu-

ate jointly with the mentor teacher. In a hybrid model, the curriculum university

facilitators would not just engage in subject-specific support, but also content and

subject-specific critique. However, certain characteristics define a strong student

teacher, and that is why a general university facilitator has a role in pedagogical theory

assistance and observation. In sum, "the university supervisor's main task is to open

and maintain communication between parties" (Willems et al. (1986)). It is impor-

tant to provide handbooks to the school and to observe regularly. In addition, the

university facilitator should have an introductory conference with the student teacher

and the mentor teacher to set goals, (Willems et al., 1986) responsibilities (Fallin and

Royse, 2000), and communicate the university mandated incremental teaching load.

Specific expectations should also be included.

School coordinator

The hybrid model selects a vice-principal to recruit mentor teachers, and to oversee the

workings of the placements, as well as acting as an additional resource. Vice-principals

who teach part-time are perfect candidates for the position. If teachers want to be school

coordinators, they should be provided with some release time to fulfill their obligations.

School coordinator roles include (Willems et al ., 1986): meeting with the university

supervisor to review the student teacher's assignment; duties and responsibilities;

LYDIA PUNGUR

reviewing the student teacher's plan; meeting the mentor teacher to provide support; and

observing the student teacher at least once.

Field experience associate

Under the hybrid model, the field experience associate is the liaison between the

university, the school, and the relevant personnel within them. In effect, they would

communicate, conference, answer queries, or deal with situations before they arise.

However, beyond ensuring the continued growth of the student teachers, they would

also, thorough formal and informal means, foster research collaboration between

schools and universities as well as providing opportunities for professional

development.

ESSENTIALS TO INCLUDE IN THE PRACTICUM

Certain requirements, other than teaching, administrative or supervisory roles should

be included. One component is mandatory lesson planning for all classes (Yeung and

Watkins, 2000). As one mentor teacher elucidated, student teaching is the time when

teachers should learn how to write them. It is also a requirement in some jurisdictions.

Moreover, as one school coordinator explained, administrators can use them, in case

of absence, to track work completed. Lesson plan templates could be provided, but the

format of the plan left up to the student teacher. However, some elements of lesson

planning should be required, such as an instructional objective to tie to the curriculum,

which provides the rationale for the content of the lesson and sets the course of action.

A second requirement should be unit planning. This sets the groundwork for later unit

and yearly planning. It is advisable to put these in as guidelines for all the key players

to follow. Third, reflective journaling would inform observation and action. The

importance of reflection has gained much currency in recent years (Adler, 1991).

Schön (1987) maintained that positivism and a technical-scientific method of teacher

education have not provided the necessary skills needed by teachers. Rather, an

approach he likened to "professional artistry" is more productive and better able to

equip teachers to meet the demands of the profession. A core ingredient of such an

approach is reflection. Reflection can be both long term and analytical (reflection-

on-action) and immediate, resolving a challenge at the moment of teaching (reflection-

in-action) (McDuffie, 2001).

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The practicum is a key component of teacher education. There are future implications

for teacher success and retention. Head teachers report that newly qualified teachers

with field-based program backgrounds operate like teachers with two or three years of

experience (Huling, 1998). Moreover, a Texas study (Fleener, 1998 as cited in Huling,

1998) revealed that the attrition rate was lower for those with longer practica in their

teacher programs than traditional campus-centred program graduates. In a hybrid

model, the time frame would be over 15 weeks and includes important parts of the

279

MENTORING: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

280

school year. The hybrid model combines aspects from different types of student

teacher programs with an emphasis on mentor-student teacher relationships, as well as

curriculum, general university facilitators, school coordinators, and field experience

associates. The reciprocity of communication should give university personnel insight

into the practical teaching requirements, and mentor teachers and school coordinators

knowledge of the new innovations they need to keep current. A close and continuous

relationship between the practicum's cast and the university will ensure that the

practicum experience stays fresh and relevant.

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Historically, university teacher education programs have been at the forefront in

preparation of teachers in the United States. However, traditionally-designed schools

and colleges of education have been under scrutiny in recent years for not adequately

preparing students to teach. A majority of graduates of schools of education believe

that traditional teacher preparation programs left them ill-prepared for the challenges

and rigors of the classroom. According to data from the National Center for

Educational Statistics (NCES), fewer than 36 percent of teachers feel "very well

prepared" to implement curriculum and performance standards (NCES, 1999). This

lack of preparation is, in part, due to lack of structured field experiences and lack of

such experiences in diverse settings. Twenty years ago, A Nation at Risk (National

Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) articulated goals for improving edu-

cation in the United States. This report addressed goals for schools and students, but

did not address higher education or the quality of teachers. Only recently has the

national emphasis on teacher quality begun to address the need for diverse field

experiences.

The concern that teachers are not well-prepared is echoed by new teachers and

national studies: "The most talented prospective teachers are discouraged by the lack

of rigor of the courses offered in many schools of education" (NCES, 1999, p. 8).

One reason schools and colleges of education have not successfully prepared teach-

ers has been due to the traditional focus of the curriculum. This in part has led to the

development of alternative certification programs. Pre-service teachers have had few

opportunities to work with "real live" students in "real live" schools. Pre-service teach-

ers read about schools, study cases, view videos of students and hear lectures about

schools. They write multiple-page lesson plans whose application proves irrelevant

in the real world of a school. They spend only a small percentage of their university

career in schools learning from classroom teachers and working with students.

Traditionally, such contact time comes relatively late in training, in the form of a semes-

ter's experience in a practicum or "practice teaching" experience. And often that

experience takes place at a university laboratory school that is quite different from

the kind of public school in which the students will very likely work upon completion

of their training.

New teachers, having spent a limited amount of time in schools, arrive on the school

house steps with perspectives developed when they were students. In the early

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19. PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS AND

MEETING THE DIVERSITY CHALLENGE

THROUGH STRUCTURED SERVICE-LEARNING

AND FIELD EXPERIENCES IN URBAN SCHOOLS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 283–300.

284

months of the school year, it is not uncommon for the new teacher to experience

depression and self-doubt, or outbursts of crying. The stresses and strains many new

teachers experience are similar to the phenomenon known as "culture shock":

Culture shock is the "feeling of dislocation that people experience when they initially

encounter a foreign culture. Peace Corps volunteers, foreign students, tourists, and

newly arrived immigrants often report that when first thrust into a strange life patterns

of a foreign culture, they feel numbingly disoriented, forced to assimilate too much

too soon, and afraid they have made a drastic mistake by going to a strange country"

(Ryan and Cooper, 2001, p. 32). Unfortunately, too many new teachers feel they have

made a drastic mistake wasting energy, lives and numerous resources at many levels.

Such mistakes can be prevented. The way to overcome new teachers' culture shock is

to consistently immerse pre-service teachers in schools. Any quality teacher prepara-

tion program includes numerous and diverse field experiences, spread throughout the

period of training.

University graduates who major in education often lack knowledge in the

content field they will be teaching. In order to prepare teachers who are competent

in their discipline, Tulane University reestablished a teacher preparation program

in which students major in a content field in preparation for secondary school

certification (grades seven to twelve). The program was designed to accommodate

a major in any of the following areas: Cellular and Molecular Biology, Chemistry,

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Dance, Economics, English, French, History,

Italian, Latin, Mathematics, Political Science, Physics, Sociology, or Spanish. It

also included an innovative major in psychology leading to early childhood certifi-

cation. As students complete their majors, these candidates in the teacher prepara-

tion and certification program interact with colleagues from all disciplines. While

large colleges of education have to overcome the barrier of being a separate

college, this program is a part of arts and sciences and serves to enhance a student's

degree.

RESPONDING TO NATIONAL ACCREDITATION

AGENCIES AND STANDARDS

The NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education) is recognized

by the United States Department of Education as an accrediting body for colleges

and universities preparing teachers. It is a coalition of more than 30 national associ-

ations representing the education profession at large. Central to the mission of

this body is the improvement of teacher preparation programs. Two of NCATE's

six performance-based standards address field experiences and diversity. An educa-

tional unit of a university preparing teachers must "design, implement, and evaluate

field experiences and clinical practice so that teacher candidates and other school

personnel develop and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary

to help all students learn." An educational unit must also "design, implement, and

evaluate curriculum and experiences for candidates to acquire and apply the knowledge,

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

skills, and dispositions necessary to help all students learn. These experiences

include working with diverse higher education and school faculty, diverse candidates,

and diverse students in P-12 schools." (NCATE, 2000, p. 10).

Additionally, NCATE has partnered with "48 states to conduct joint reviews of col-

leges of education in order to integrate state and national professional teacher prepa-

ration standards and increase the rigor of reviews of teacher education institutions"

(National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2000). It is important to

note that the NCATE 2000 performance-based standards have been a strong impetus

for universities nationwide to redesign teacher education programs. Gone is the day

when a teacher candidate spends only one final semester in the classroom engaged in

student teaching.

RESPONDING TO FEDERAL LEGISLATION AND

COMMISSION RECOMMENDATIONS

Recognizing that every American family deserves public schools that work, the No

Child Left Behind Act of 2001, the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act, pledges highly qualified teachers in every classroom by the 2005–06

school year. "All children should have the opportunity to learn – regardless of income,

background, or ethnic identity." (U.S. House of Representatives, 2001). The report of

the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (Hunt, 2003, p. 7) def ines

"highly qualified beginning teachers" as teachers who:

●possess a deep understanding of the subjects they teach;

●evidence a firm understanding of how students learn;

●demonstrate the teaching skills necessary to help all students achieve high

standards;

●create a positive learning environment;

●use a variety of assessment strategies to diagnose and respond to individual learning

needs;

●demonstrate and integrate modern technology into the school curriculum to support

student learning;

●collaborate with colleagues, parents and community members, and other educators

to improve student learning;

●reflect on their practice to improve future teaching and student achievement;

●pursue professional growth in both content and pedagogy; and

●instill a passion for learning in their students.

Tulane University's Teacher Preparation and Certification Program was estab-

lished to prepare students to function as highly qualified teachers according to the

criteria of NCATE and the No Child Left Behind legislation. Through a rigorous

major in an academic subject and through a variety of service learning experiences,

students are well prepared for the challenges of the secondary school classroom.

Unfortunately, these innovative undergraduate programs were rejected by state

entities in Louisiana, since they did not include all of the traditionally required

285

PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

286

courses for teacher certification (such as courses in basic mathematics). In order to

maintain the creative aspects of the program, it was necessary to move the program

to the post-baccalaureate level. With this change, students must complete one to

two semesters' additional college work in order to become eligible for teaching

certification.

SERVICE LEARNING AS A PARTNER WITH TEACHER

PREPARATION PROGRAMS

As the Teacher Preparation and Certification Program developed at Tulane, a parallel

development was taking place at the University. Tulane's Office of Service Learning

was established in 1998, to implement goals specified in Tulane's strategic plan,

including the strengthening of undergraduate education and the elaboration of

university-community collaborations. Service Learning is defined as "a credit-bearing,

educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity

that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such

a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation

of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility" (Bringle and

Hatcher, 1995).

Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action was released by The Teaching Commission in

2004 and, among significant recommendations, includes raising standards in prepa-

ration programs which encompass "drawing clear connections between what future

teachers are taught about pedagogy and what research shows to be effective, and

offering opportunities to learn and observe in a real world setting" (The Teaching

Commission, 2004a, p. 35–36). Service learning is particularly useful in teacher

preparation, emphasizing the application of course concepts in the service activity,

careful planning that assures relevance of the service activity to the course and the

value of the service to the community, and opportunities for oral and written reflection

on the service experiences. For their service activities, Tulane students mentor/tutor

students, work in classrooms to gain an understanding of students, teachers and

schools, and complete reflective journals in which they integrate service with course

concepts. Through these experiences, they begin to understand how students learn,

how effective teachers teach, how to structure lessons, and how to assess students.

They begin to overcome school "culture shock" through experiences in a variety of

diverse school settings.

Tulane's Teacher Preparation and Certification Program includes four courses that

require service learning field or clinical experiences in a school. Several of these also

require students to register for an add-on credit for service learning. For example, in

the course EDUC 200 – Introduction to Education, students concurrently take EDUC

389-Service Learning in Public Schools, for which they complete forty service learning

hours during the semester. Table 19.1 provides a list of the program's service learning

courses and a description of the school sites with which students work.

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

Description of field sites and performance activities

Pre-service teacher candidates are required to complete field and clinical experiences

in numerous diverse schools in New Orleans. The Teacher Preparation and Certification

Program and the Office of Service Learning form a strong partnership to enhance the

learning experiences of Tulane students while providing a service to the New Orleans

community. Schools have been selected to provide a range of experiences for

pre-service teacher candidates so as to prepare them to work in any setting as a future

teacher. Experiences such as these allow graduates to overcome the school/culture

shock experiences felt by many new teachers who were not given such field oppor-

tunities and requirements, thereby increasing teacher retention. Teaching experiences

become more rigorous throughout the program and are evaluated to determine the

impact on preparing strong teachers and the effect on PK-12 achievement. School

partners in the Program represent:

●urban, high poverty and low proficiency level populations,

●low poverty, mid to high socioeconomic and diverse minority populations,

●special needs and gifted populations,

●magnet school populations,

●charter schools,

●leadership academy school promoting full inclusion and

●schools designated as in need of improvement.

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PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

TABLE 19.1 EDLA 389 – Lesson scoring rubric for on-site service learning

STUDENT NAME

SCHOOL TEACHER

SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT/CLIMATE

INTERACTIONS WITH STUDENTS

WAYS ESTABLISHED RAPPORT/CONNECTED WITH STUDENTS

WHAT PRE-SERVICE

TEACHER DID WHAT STUDENTS DID

— (10) Lesson planning evident — (10) Objective clear

— (10) Introduction/focus — (10) Eye contact/poise

— (10) Use of technology and/or handouts — (10) Organized

— (30) Activity — (10) Closure/review/assessment

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS:

288

Field placements

Pre-service teacher candidates are assigned to individual classrooms in schools by

the Teacher Preparation Program's Coordinator of Field Experiences, the Senior

Field Coordinator in the Office of Service Learning in association with School Site

Coordinators. Site coordinators are partner school teachers or administrators who, in

collaboration with the Program's Coordinator of Field Experiences and the Senior

Coordinator of Service Learning from the University, determine at the partner school

level the correct match for a teacher candidate with a cooperating teacher. Cooperating

teachers are screened according to their current teaching assignment, evidence of their

use of effective teaching practices in the classroom, level of certification, and the

expressed desire to assist a potential candidate. Along with the Teacher Candidate

Evaluation form to be completed by the cooperating teacher, an overview of the Program

and suggestions for appropriate activities are made available to the cooperating teachers

before candidates arrive in the classroom. Cooperating teachers and principals are

also invited to attend any Program seminars in the corresponding course and/or the

rap sessions supported by the Office of Service Learning.

Partner schools have been selected to complement the university program based on

the diverse philosophical and educational experiences that can be offered to the can-

didate over the timeframe of the program, the contractual agreement from the site to

support the Program and Service Learning, and the evidence of effective teaching

and leadership practices.

At the beginning of each semester, candidates and the site coordinators meet on

the work site campus. The teacher candidates report individually to their assigned

teacher in their partner school on the first contracted day. Site Coordinators meet

throughout the semester with the candidates on a predetermined schedule and reflect

on potential revisions to the candidates' behavior, attitude, or placement needs. Site

Coordinators are contacted monthly by the Senior Field Coordinator from Service

Learning who remains in weekly connection with the Program's Coordinator for

Field Experiences to sustain a multi-level support system for the candidates.

Preparatory meetings among the three coordinators occur at the beginning of the

school year, are sustained throughout the year, and end with a debriefing in May after

the University semester has ended. At that time, the Teacher Candidate Evaluation

form completed by Cooperating Teachers to support the preparation process for

teacher candidates is reviewed for potential revisions of the Program. The successful

collaboration and strong working relationship between programs was achieved

through open communication and including staff from each program in the operations

and monthly meetings of one another's offices.

Performance Activities and Assessments

The sequence of coursework is designed to provide crucial service learning experiences

in public schools from the point of entry. The first education course, EDLA 200 –

Introduction to Education in a Diverse Society and the accompanying co-requisite

EDLA 389 requires a total of 40 hours of service learning. In the final exam, students

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

are asked to articulate experiences gained in the public school site and juxtapose that

with theory discussed in the university classroom. This final exam question and the

field experience/service learning requirements count approximately 50% of the total

course grade. The "project" for service learning hours is teaching a lesson on site and is

assessed in the manner of a teacher being appraised utilized the rubric EDLA 389 –

Lesson Scoring Rubric for on-site Service Learning (See Table 19.1).

Courses with field components become exponentially more difficult in that they

carry and require increasing responsibility for pre-service teachers. Candidates

observe, serve as classroom assistants (working with the teacher), tutor one-on-one

and small groups, and conduct a 30-minute lesson in a class. Progression through the

program into methods courses require candidates to spend 50–120 clock hours each

semester administering assessments, collaborating with practicing teachers, some

who are Nationally Board Certified. Candidates observe/participate in grade

level/vertical team meetings, parent conferences, parent association meetings/events

and extra-curricular activities. Candidates spend one entire school day teaching (and

being assessed by practicing teachers) in a public school, which includes videotaping

and self-reflecting on their performances and dispositions. Candidates participate in

professional development experiences offered by the school site alongside practicing

teachers and can observe and participate in effective teaching practices that meet the

needs of all students regardless of ethnicity, special needs, or social economic status.

They submit timesheets and survey evaluations to the Office of Service Learning for

the course. Assessments for the service learning field experience are incorporated

into each course, with reflection evident in the course grading process. Detailed

performance activities and assessments are detailed in the Field Experiences Grid in

Table 19.2. As indicated there, pre-service teachers begin and end their course of

289

PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

TABLE 19.2 Field experiences grid

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field experiences/ Assessments for site-based

and titles activities field experiences Grade levels experiences

EDLA 200/600 Observations (2 hours ● Completes 7–12 6 hours

Introduction to each) in four schools; observation 6–8

education in a 3 public and 1 child checklists on

diverse care center. school climate, PK 2 hours

society teacher-student

interactions,

special needs

children.

●Writes

comprehensive

report.

Continued

290

Serve as classroom ● Develops initial 7–12 20 hours

assistants, work and final belief placement

with/tutor 1–3 statement/philos managed

students. ophy of education through the

in writing. Office of Service

●Uses Blackboard

Leaning for K-3 20 hours

developing placement

technology managed

expertise

●Participate in through the

debriefing (rap) Office of SL

sessions.

●Oral Exit

Interview

discussing

experiences,

juxtaposed with

theory.

●Feedback from

public school

site coordinators

and senior

coordinator from

the Office of

Service Learning

EDLA 389 ●Teaches 30–60 ●Lesson observed Sec:

Service minute lesson in (rubric 6–12

learning in public school completed) by

public school classroom program's field

commensurate experiences ECE: K-3

with certification coordinator

level seeking. ●Feedback from

●Journal of public school site

observation notes, coordinators

reflections, and ●Paper reflecting

brain based lesson on teaching

according to experience.

established class

guidelines.

PSYC Tutor groups or ● Objective and PK-5 20 hours

320/620 individual students essay questions K-5 through the

educational on midterm and 6–8 office of

psychology final exams. service

Continued

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

●Class writing learning

assignments on

service learning

experiences

●Class reports by

students

●Responses to

Reflective

Journal

PSYC Tutor groups or ● Objective and 6 wks–4 years 20 hours

321/621 individual students essay questions K-5 through the

child on exams office of

psychology ● Class discussion service

●Writing learning

assignments

●SL Journal

entries

EDUC School visitation to ●Complete PK-3 4/12 hours per

340/640 observe master observation student

classroom teachers in the field checklist 6–8

management with checklist (3 ●Questions on

blocks or 6 periods). exams

●Learning logs

EDUC Observe and teach in ●Portfolio K-3 Required co-

380/680 classroom for 30 ●Critique of unit requisite

methods of minute blocks. Plan, lessons plans EDUC 381 -

reading observe and ●Observation Journal 6–8 120 hours for

instruction participate in ●Supervised teaching ECE OR

preservice and teacher ●Individual EDUC 382 -

inservice professional assessment project 10 hours for

development, ● Standard assessment secondary

administer ● Feedback/evaluations Time sheets/

assessments (Dibels from site coordinator transportation

and Gates), monitor and cooperating managed

student progress in teachers through OSL place

individual and small ments managed by

group tutoring Eve Gitlin, Course

professor

EDUC Co-requisite EDUC 380 K-3 120 clock hours

381/681 for ECE certification Time sheets/

reading transportation

practicum managed

for early through OSL

childhood

291

Continued

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

292

EDUC 300/ ●20 hours of ● Complete 20 hours

630 observation and observation managed

emergent participation with checklists for through OSL

literacy & children age two literacy centers

language to eight ●Complete a

arts ● Select 12–20 running record

development books appropriate session with one

for preschool/ student

kindergarten/prim ● Complete trial

ary. Read to balloons

children at site Evaluation forms

with children

EDLA/ENLS Reading to/with ● Written 2 years–5 years, 20 hours

316/616 individual assignments K-3

children's students/classes ● Class discussion

literature ● Critiques/evalua

tions of Children's

books by children

●Exams

PSYC Observe, record ● Record behavior, 3–6 years 26 hours

323/623 behavior of one child complete skills &

observation & environmental

document- checklist

ation in PK ● Log grading

PSYC Observe & tutor. Service Learning 6 wks–4 years 20 hours

325/625 Students serve as journals 6 wks–4 years

psychology classroom assistants, K-3

of early individual reading

childhood tutors

PSYC Observe, participate in ● Design lesson 3–6 years 78 hours

335/635 activities plan for activity

methodology in each learning

and practicum area in classroom

in PK ●Work directly with

classroom teachers

in Newcomb Child

Care Center

EDUC 350/ ●3 microteaching ● Professor/Instruct K-3 40 hours

650 Methods lessons (5 min, or and peer

of Early 15 min, 25 min) feedback using a Time sheets

Childhood to peers. rubric and

Education/ transportation

Curriculum ● Unit/lesson ● Reflection paper managed by

Integration presented to critiquing video OSL.

K-3rd actual students at of lesson Placements

Continued

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

293

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

Continued

School presentation coordinated

with site

●Written paper ●Units/lessons coordinator

describing evaluated by

implications of practicing

diversity in teachers, and

professional course professor

practice and site

comparing/contra coordinator

sting field utilizing rubrics

experiences &

theory ● Review of edited

video and

reflections;

comments

provided

EDUC ● Work with math ● Develop/present K-3 80 hours

390/660 and science math/science

ECE Methods teachers and thematic unit, Times sheets

II: methods of students including creative and

math and ●Develop lesson, thinking transportation

science tutor and teach to processes, managed by

small groups inquiry, and the OSL

EDUC ● Develop two physical/natural Placements

391/661 (2 centers, one math world coordinated

hours) and one science ●Compile box/file with site

practicum & inquiry of age coordinator

assessment in ● Construct/present appropriate

math/science developmentally lessons,

appropriate activities, and

science/math games

lesson plans, ●Review four

reflecting articles from

national/state professional

standards literature,

●Unit/lesson reflecting

presentsed to developmentally

students at the appropriate practice,

school current trends,

processes, research,

technology and

best practices

observed in

science/math

294

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

●Units/lessons

evaluated by the

professors using

rubric

PSYC ● Tutor groups or ● Objective and 20 hours

339/639 individual essay questions through the

adolescent students on exams office of

psychology ● Class discussion service

●Wriing learning

assignments

●SL Journal

entries

PSYC 320/20 ● Tutor groups or ● SL Journal 20 hours

childhood individual entries through the

behavior students office of

disorders service

learning

EDUC 601 ● Three ● Labs videotaped 6–8 70 hours

methods of microteaching and written

secondary labs and reflections Times sheets

instruction I accompanying included in and

lesson plans journal. Journal transportation

●Unit/lesson entries reflect managed by

presented to readings labs and OSL

students at the class experiences Placements

school, evaluated coordinated by

by the professors school site

using a rubric coordinator

●Electronic

Porfolio

●Formal paper on

diversity and

learning

differences in

professional

practice

EDUC 609- ● Develop ● Planning 6–8 70 hours

613 series: understanding by teaching, and

methods of design unit and assessing lessons

teaching in teach one lesson in content area,

content field to students in the appropriate to

Continued

field either junior or 8–12 20 hours

●Shadow/work senior high

with Tulane students

professor ● Self critique

utilizing

videotapes and

rubric

●Self-reflection

journal and

written

observations with

ratings by

instructors

Courses carry two numbers to allow them to be taken at the undergraduate or graduate (post-baccalaureate) level.

295

TABLE 19.2 Continued

Listing of site-based Number of

Course performances hours req for

numbers field Assessments for site-based

and titles experiences/activities f ield experiences Grade levels experiences

study with education and psychology courses grounded in service learning experiences

with varying activities in diverse schools. Assessments are ongoing and candidates

are responsible for documenting their own knowledge, skills and dispositions for

teaching throughout the program coursework in an electronic portfolio. As candidates

progress through courses they become increasingly more comfortable, confident and

professional until their student teaching experience is a culmination and documentation

of teaching successes, rather than the traditional first experience in a classroom.

THE IMPACT OF SERVICE LEARNING EXPERIENCES ON

STUDENTS' ATTITUDES AND PLANS

The research team at Tulane's Office of Service Learning has carried out several

studies to measure the impact of college students' service learning experiences. The

Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ) was developed to measure

attitudes, skills, and behavioral intentions that might be affected by participation in

service learning (Moely et al ., 2002a). Students responded to questionnaire items by

indicating their agreement with statements on five-point scales. Factor analyses of

data from two samples of students at Tulane University (N 's  761, 725) allowed us

to define six scales:

Civic Action. Intentions to become involved in the future in some community service

or action are assessed. The scale is focused on plans for involvement in community

programs and providing assistance to others.

296

Interpersonal and Problem-Solving Skills. Respondents evaluate their ability to lis-

ten, work cooperatively, communicate, make friends, take the role of the other, think

logically and analytically, and solve problems.

Political Awareness. Respondents evaluate themselves on items concerning aware-

ness of local and national current events and political issues.

Leadership Skills. Respondents evaluate their ability to lead and their effectiveness as

leaders.

Social Justice Attitudes. Respondents report their agreement with items expressing

attitudes concerning causes of poverty and misfortune and how social problems can

be solved.

Diversity Attitudes. Respondents describe their attitudes toward diversity and interest

in relating to persons of other cultural backgrounds.

In a study by Moely et al . (2002b), college students completed the CASQ at the

beginning and end of a semester, reporting their views regarding civic and interper-

sonal skills and attitudes. Students who carried out service learning (N  217) showed

increases over the semester in their plans for future civic action, assessments of their

own interpersonal and problem-solving skills and their leadership skills, and agreement

with items emphasizing societal factors that affect individual outcomes (social justice).

Thus, the service learning experience appears to develop positive attitudes con-

cerning civic engagement, while also enhancing personal conceptualizations of self,

others, and societal issues. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies

(Eyler and Giles, 1999; Stukas, et al., 1999). How might the service-learning experi-

ence contribute to such increases? Service learning gives students many opportunities

to interact with people different in age, social class and race from those they see

every day, providing opportunities for development of social and problem-solving

skills including communication, role-taking, and conflict resolution.

Tulane student A, who is in the teacher certification program, commented about

her service learning experience as giving her the opportunity to interact with students

with whom she would not have worked otherwise:

The children at School XX want to learn and the teachers there are making

learning fun, while at the same time emphasizing the importance of each

lesson. These seventh graders are kids that I would never have had the

chance to interact with, relate to, or learn from, if it had not been for serv-

ice learning. Each Tuesday and Thursday I take back so many important

experiences and observations critical to my future as a potential teacher.

The service experience requires students to show initiative, creativity, and flexibility in

dealing with new or unexpected situations, gives them responsibility for determining the

most effective way to accomplish the goal of their service, and thus, helps develop their

leadership skills. Increase in a social justice perspective indicates an increased aware-

ness of social institutions, customs, and power distributions that contribute to poverty

and inequities in our society. Service learning has given these students many opportuni-

ties to see how communities are affected by the quality of major institutions such as the

public educational system, thus increasing their awareness of social justice issues.

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

Tulane student B expressed her feelings about working in diverse communities:

One of the students reads at a very low level, but he has made some

progress over the course of the semester. Working with him every week

has given me the chance to form a relationship with him as well as to see

him progress. Being at School XX has helped me to examine on an experi-

ential level issues of poverty and racism as we discuss them on a theoretical

level in class.

Student C believed the school where she worked "provided a unique environment to

study the impacts of neighborhoods on development by having extended school

hours used as a buffer against potential negative influences."

Our research consistently shows that service-learning students evaluate their

courses more positively than do comparable groups of students who are not partici-

pating in service learning. Moely et al . (2002b) found that students engaged in serv-

ice learning showed greater satisfaction with their courses, reporting higher levels of

learning about the academic field and the community than did students not participat-

ing in service learning. Gallini and Moely (2003) showed that while service-learning

and non-service-learning students did not differ in total study time for all of their

courses, service-learning students reported significantly more study time for the

service-learning class, and viewed their courses as more academically challenging.

Elyer and Giles (1999) report similar findings – students enjoy their service learning

courses, report substantial learning from them, and make efforts to seek out further

service experiences.

As a second semester service learner, Student D had the opportunity to work in

two very different schools, tutoring an 8th grader at one school and working with an

after-school program at another. She describes her experiences:

Tutoring at both places has been and continues to be a challenging and

educational experience, which has taught me about who I am and my

position in the world. My experiences have not been easy but it was being

forced out of my comfort zone which has enabled me to grow as an indi-

vidual. When I first heard that I was going to have to sacrifice even more

time out of my already tightly-packed schedule, I was not thrilled. I

became somewhat overwhelmed and even considered whether or not this

was for me. Yet … I knew that I needed to take a step out and find out if I

truly wanted or had the skills to become an educator. I remember listen-

ing to my professor telling us how she had many students who thanked

her for mandating service learning.

I was somewhat nervous because I had heard that this school had a

tough reputation, but I was also curious to see and experience this new

environment. I walked into a school where as far as I could see I was the

only white individual. I have to be honest that this was an intimidating

situation and one that I had never been in before. I grew up in a rather

racially diverse community, but had never experienced being the minority.

297

PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

298

I still struggle with feeling uncomfortable every time that I go, but I believe

being confronted with this situation has given me a new perspective. I

realize how easy it is to become sheltered by college life, where the

population by far does not represent the city of New Orleans. Service

learning has enabled me to experience more than just the tourist areas,

but real people of New Orleans.

My student has taught me about a new level of patience, understanding,

and compassion where all three are necessary when trying to the best of

one's ability to comfort someone in difficult situations. Even though I

was able to be there for her in times when she was struggling, I honestly

doubted whether or not I was making even a small difference in my

student's life … . I did not realize how important my presence actually

was to her until I attended the going-away party for the mentors held by the

School XX staff before winter break. I remember walking in and seeing my

student's eager and excited face, as she introduced me to her mother and

sister. It was at that moment I realized that all the times that I went, even

when I was tired or had homework to do, were very much worth it.

Overall it comes down to this: How it is possible to make a difference in

a person's life even if you think what you are doing is not very significant.

I guess I always heard in theory about how it just takes a willingness to

make a difference. It always sounded good, but I really never understood

until I experienced it for myself.

The experience Student D described here is repeated throughout campus as students

work in schools. Service learning provides opportunities for them to apply concepts

that they learn in their courses to their service, reflect on the concepts they are learning

and develop a deeper understanding of course material and its application to real-world

issues and concerns. A well-planned service-learning course, in which the service

activity is coordinated with course concepts, will challenge students and develop

their interest and motivation in course content, produce positive attitude changes

concerning societal issues and civic engagement, and enhance student satisfaction

with the university experience.

Participation in service learning has a profound and lifelong impact on students.

Student E views her experience as a gift:

Tutoring is the gift of sharing what you know with someone, and watch-

ing as your knowledge and ideas merge with theirs. The eighth graders at

School XX give me so much wisdom and perspective. Though I hold the

title of tutor, I feel as though I walk away each week from School XX

learning more than teaching … . They give me a glimpse into their lives

and their world, which are so different from my own or anything that I

have experienced. … . Each student with whom I have worked has so

much energy and personality …

… my time at School XX has given me one of the biggest gifts I could ask

for: A potential career choice. Through working at this school and others,

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

I have really discovered a love of children and an appreciation of what

they have to offer. They have made me want to be a teacher, and with that,

I hope that I can give something back to some other kids one of these days.

The partnership of teacher preparation and service learning has proven to be of para-

mount importance in preparing pre-service teachers for overcoming culture shock

and successfully working in America's schools. In a study of service-learning in

teacher education, Root, Callahan, and Sepanski (2002) found that "Eighty percent

of subjects noted that their views of P 12 students had changed as a result of their

service-learning experience" (p. 232).

CONCLUSION

Teachers have great responsibility for shaping the minds of generations of students

and are the world's most valuable commodity. Teacher preparation that emphasizes

both strong content knowledge and extensive experiences working in schools in con-

junction with academic courses will produce the highly qualified teachers we need to

meet the challenges of today's society.

The quality of teachers in our schools affects every aspect of our society,

from jobs to national security," said Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. former chairman

of IBM and chairman of The Teaching Commission. The nation will not

continue to lead or to create jobs if we persist in viewing teaching-the

professional that makes all other professions possible-as a second-rate

occupation.

(The Teaching Commission, 2004b, p. 1)

Utilizing service-learning as a model of quality field experiences is crucial in meet-

ing the diversity challenge and "like the students they will someday teach, teacher

education students are more likely to act their way into new ways of thinking than to

think their way into new ways of acting" (Anderson, 2000, p. 12).

REFERENCES

Anderson, J. (2000) Service-Learning and Preservice Teacher Education. Education Commission of the

States Learning In Deed Issue Paper.

Bringle, R. G. and Hatcher, J. A. (1995) A Service-Learning Curriculum for Faculty. Michigan Journal of

Community Service Learning, vol. 2, pp. 112–122.

Eyler, J., and Giles, D. E., Jr (1999) Where's the Learning In Service-Learning? San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Gallini, S., and Moely, B. E. (2003) Service Learning and Engagement, Academic Challenge, and

Retention. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning , vol. 10, pp. 5–14.

Hunt, J. (2003) No Dream Denied, a Pledge to America's Children. National Commission on Teaching and

America's Future.

Moely, B. E., Mercer, S. H., Ilustre, V., Miron, D. and McFarland, M. (2002a) Psychometric Properties and

Correlates of the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ): A Measure of Students'

Attitudes Related to service Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning , vol. 8,

pp. 15–26.

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PREPARING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

300

Moely, B. E., McFarland, M., Miron, D., Mercer, S. H. and Ilustre, V. (2002b) Changes in College

Students' Attitudes and Intentions for Civic Involvement as a Function of Service-Learning

Experiences. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning , vol. 9, pp. 18–26.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (1999) Teacher Quality: A Report on the Preparation and

Qualifications of Public School Teachers.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983) A Nation At Risk .

http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/intro.html.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2000) http://ncate.org/2000/unit_stnds_2002.pdf.

Root, S., Callahan, J., and Sepanski, J. (2002) Service-Learning in Teacher Education in Service-Learning:

The Essence of the Pedagogy In Furco, A. and Billig, S. (eds) Greenwich, Connecticut:

Information Age Publishing.

Ryan, K. and Cooper, J. (2001) Those Who Can, Teach, (9th Edition). New York: Houghton Mifflin

Company.

Stukas, A. A., Jr., Clary, E. G., and Snyder, M. (1999) Service learning: Who benefits and why. Social

Policy Report, Society for Research in Child Development, 13, No. 4.

The Teaching Commission. (2004a) Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action. New York, The Teaching

Commission. http://www.theteachingcommission.org/press/FINAL_Report.pdf

The Teaching Commission. (2004b) Press Release, January 14, 2004. New Y ork, The Teaching

Commission. http://www.theteachingcommission.org/press/2004_01_14_01.html

U.S. House of Representatives. (2001) No Child Left Behind Act. Conference Report To Accompany

H.R.1, Washington, DC: Author.

United States Department of Education (2001) http://www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/intro/factsheet.html

TERI C. DAVIS AND BARBARA MOELY

Recent education reforms have meant that many universities are re-examining, refining

and implementing teacher education courses that are aligned with the curricular,

pedagogical and organizational reforms influenced by past educational research. At the

same time an increased emphasis has been on the development of university school

partnerships leading to improved relations between schools and universities through

the introduction of initiatives such as an internship program. Since the 1990's various

Australian professional and government groups have recognised the importance of

internships in the preparation of teachers (Australian Council of Deans, 1998;

Queensland Board of Teacher, 1999). However there is considerable confusion over the

meaning of an internship.

For the purpose of this chapter we define the internship as

… extended field based and context-responsive professional learning

experiences negotiated collaboratively by stakeholders in the culminating

phase of preservice teacher preparation … The intern is mentored and

immersed in a broad range of teachers' professional work activities.It

involves a shift in status for the preservice teacher with increased

opportunities for autonomy, responsibility and accountability but with a

safety net. The classroom teacher's relationship with the intern moves

from evaluative to collegial.

(Board of Teacher Registration, 2003, p. 7).

Internships have become a feature of a number of preservice teacher education

programs offered by Australian universities since the mid 1990's. For example both

the University of Western Sydney (Cameron, 2001) and Charles Sturt University

(Mitchell et al ., 1996) incorporate a ten week internship program into the final year

of a Bachelor of Education program. Hatton (1996) writes of an internship program

offered at the University of Sydney as part of a Master of Teaching program. More

recently, James Cook University has introduced an internship program as part of its

Bachelor of Education program (Matters, 2001). These internships share the

common features of engaging TE students in a practicum that is offered in the final

year of a preservice TE program over a prolonged period of time, shared or sole

responsibility for the class and where the relationship changes from student/supervisor

to intern/mentor.

A successful internship provides an opportunity for developing a three-way

partnership between the university, school and T E students through the incorpora-

tion of classroom learning, teaching theory with real-world experience. Cole et al .

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LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

20. TEACHING INTERNSHIPS

AND THE LEARNING COMMUNITY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 301–314.

302

(1999) suggest that no partnership can exist where only one partner benefits.

Therefore a successful intern partnership requires a partnership that is collaborative,

mutually advantageous and shares governance and evaluation of the program. An

intern partnership such as this has the opportunity to provide a number of benefits for

the T E student, the supervisor/mentor, the practicum school, the university and

teacher employers. T E students gain real world experience through their immersion

in a sustained practical work experience within a school culture where they can

develop a range of personal and professional attributes. They are able to work in a

classroom setting in which they have the opportunity to put theory into practice.

Frequently the sustained period of teaching during the internship provides the

connection between university course work and classroom teaching that has not

often become evident in prior practicum experiences. As well they develop an aware-

ness of a workplace culture and can appreciate the fluidity of the rapidly changing

world of work. In short they learn how to be flexible. Finally they become aware of

opportunities to build a strong network of collegial support that can be drawn on in

the future.

Classroom teachers have the opportunity to develop professionally by giving back

to their profession through mentoring. They also benefit from an injection of new

ideas that enhances their own professional growth and development. In addition

teachers have time to initiate new projects that will be of benefit to the school

community. As well they become an extension of the university teacher education

program through their role as mentor to the T E student and they participate in the

management of the internship program thus entering into a three-way relationship

alongside the T E student and university. The reputation of a university's academic

program can be strengthened and the academic reputation of the university increases.

Academics have the opportunity to see their students develop and mature as they

put subject theory into practice. Finally, teacher employers benefit from having a

pool of talented graduate teachers eligible for employment. Here, the added benefit

of an internship to employers is that the extended period of practice in schools

can provide important information related to the teaching attributes of graduate

teachers that will contribute to employers making informed decisions regarding

staffing needs.

The need to develop a level of understanding and cooperation with the school, the

academic program and the T E student is required for a successful partnership to

develop during the internship. In the past universities have usually adopted a senior

role while working with schools. However this hierarchical structure can be broken

down with a more cooperative structure for a successful intern partnership. Working

this way has the potential to develop the type of learning community that Hough and

Paine (1997) state is required for schools to prepare students to take their place in a

new socio economic era marked by both rapid local and global change. Further,

schools need to develop as adaptive learning organizations that operate within a wide

ranging learning community whose boundaries transcend those of the immediate

school environment. Similarly universities must also prepare graduate teachers who

can take their place in a changing society.

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

THE POLITICS OF A LEARNING COMMUNITY

Many education researchers endorse the notion of learning community. Achinstein

(2002) refers to a learning community as the common purpose and mutual activity

that unites a group towards similar interests and goals. The important components of

a learning community are the tools, technologies, rituals and conventions that

develop and maintain structures that foster interdependence and collaboration based

on common values, norms and orientations towards teaching, students and schooling.

Learning communities are related to a context of current reform efforts aimed at

educational change by restructuring schools and professionalising teachers through

developing cultures of learning and practice. The argument is that teachers feel more

positive about the outcomes of educational change for children and their profession

if they can access teacher networks, enriched professional roles and collegial work

(Darling-Hammond, 1996). Thus professional teachers become change agents and

reformers of education because they take on an active research role in their daily

practice thereby learning from inquiring into the nature of learning and the effects of

teaching. The theme of change is repeated by Cochran- Smith and Lytle (1999) who

argue that teachers in a learning community who engage in inquiry into their practice

become agents for change in the classroom and the school. Here the learning com-

munity takes on a social and political stance as it becomes involved in the ways

knowledge is constructed, evaluated and used. At the same time the roles of partici-

pants in the community inform the type of change that results from the learning.

The importance of learning communities to teaching is that they encourage life

long learning and facilitate the adaptation to change which is a critical component for

success. Harvey et al. (1998) point out that an added benefit of learning communities

is that while they sustain links with higher education facilities through the provision of

placement opportunities for students, they also ensure students are given support and

are provided with meaningful learning experiences. Likewise, Darling-Hammond

(1997) argues for schools that develop a learning community of support and profes-

sional development. A school community that participates in an internship program

contributes to the professional development of experienced teachers who serve as

mentors, teacher leaders and co-researchers to cohorts of T E students and beginning

teachers. A learning community such as this provides richer learning experiences for

teachers as well as children and T E students. King (2002) further argues for a pro-

fessional school community in which inquiry into practice takes place so that teach-

ers can work collectively toward shared understanding and commitment in order to

improve student learning. Inquiry of this type frequently takes place in an internship

when both the classroom teacher and T E student are challenged to reflect on the

effect their practices have on classroom learning.

LEARNING COMMUNITIES AND TEACHER ISOLATION

Dobbins (1997), Grundy (1999) and Liebermann (2000) have explored the theme of

isolation and the way in which the partnerships in learning communities can overcome

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304

this. Dobbins describes traditional school cultures as individualistic. She claims that

teachers are isolated because few chances are provided for collaboration and profes-

sional interaction. Grundy argues that learning communities must accept and foster

the tension between individuality and collegiality. On the one hand teachers are

required to make autonomous professional decisions. On the other hand student

outcomes can be maximised through teachers working collaboratively. Liebermann

acknowledges teachers' isolation and recommends school development and change

that supports the concept of communities of learners that challenge isolation and

improve teacher practice. We argue that the internship program has the potential to

challenge the culture of isolation because it promotes the notion of a learning com-

munity. This occurs through increased collaboration in school university partnerships,

shared responsibility for the internship program, professional development for super-

vising teachers and a rich school experience for T E students. In addition, teachers

often become isolated because they are time poor and energy poor as a result of con-

stant educational reform. The internship frequently provides teachers with additional

time through the presence in their classroom of a T E student who takes on the role of

co-teacher. Moreover teachers often experience a renewal of energy through the devel-

opment of a quality relationship and the introduction of innovative ideas and current

practices introduced by the T E student. The energy and enthusiasm can be heard in

the following whimsical comments made by a mentor teacher who discovers she is not

alone.

My co-teacher has been brilliant. If there was a problem she would

recognise it and fix it. She just fitted right in. I didn't think there were

many others who taught like me but she is like my twin separated at birth –

except she's tall and blonde.

Mentor Teacher, 2001

THE AMBIVALENCE OF LEARNING COMMUNITIES

While learning communities contribute toward the growth and development of teach-

ers and T E students there are other aspects that can be challenging. Binnaford and

Hanson (1995) and King (2002) identify the ambivalent nature of a learning com-

munity as a site of both positive and negative social conditions. On the one hand the

community can represent consensus, harmony and mutual understanding. Here

dynamic growth and development occur in a supportive culture that encourages crit-

ical reflection and frequent questioning and inquiry of values, goals and practices.

On the other hand the community can enforce heterogeneity through imposing

strict boundaries with little allowance for negotiation or interpretation. Ambivalence

of this type can occur in teacher education programs. For example a taken-for-

granted assumption is that teacher education programs prepare students for entry into

a school community as participant members. T E students frequently learn that they

will hasten their acceptance into a school community by immediately assuming the

philosophy, style, methods and practices of the supervising teacher. Here the student

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

learns that to survive and pass the practicum or internship means adopting an appren-

ticeship model of teacher education where knowledge passes from expert to novice.

In this case Binnaford and Hanson (1995) consider conflict and difference as a threat,

with the power to exclude or silence some community members. The result is a

decline in growth and development. Gallego (2001) refers to this model of enforced

heterogeneity as an "apprenticeship of oppression" (p. 314) because students con-

centrate on survival rather than on their own development.

Achinstein (2002) argues that rather than being problematic, conflict that arises

from the tensions, challenges and dilemmas of being part of a learning community are

a natural and vital part of growth and renewal of the community. Further, conflict

within a learning community has the potential to encourage teachers to engage in critical

reflection. Such reflection frequently serves to challenge the taken-for-granted political

and ideological assumptions that help shape teacher thinking and practice.

We argue that both the language and process of the internship can challenge the

oppression and heterogeneity of some teacher education programs. The language of

the intern program identifies the T E student as "co-teacher" rather than student.

Here the message is given to the TE student that they are ready to take their place

alongside the classroom teacher as a partner. The process also situates the teacher

education student as a teaching partner rather than a novice with the expectation that

there will be a sharing of the workload. The role of the classroom teacher shifts

perceptibly from that of supervising teacher to mentor. The expectation of this latter

role is that there will develop a teaching partnership underpinned by shared power

rather than an expert/novice relationship. This can be heard in the following words of

mentor teachers and co-teachers.

I have enjoyed working cooperatively with another professional.

Mentor Teacher, 2002

My co-teacher knows more about learning outcomes than most of our

staff and is really useful in our program.

Mentor Teacher, 2002

I get on with my mentor teacher really well. However she is probably the

most disorganised person I have ever met. I am actually helping her to

become more organised.

Co-Teacher, 2002

A terrific professional relationship has developed between us. We respect

each other's strengths and value the learning/insight we have gained

from each other's weaknesses.

Mentor Teacher, 2001

In summary the process of the internship has the potential to develop a learning

community that offers a school university partnership which supports teacher

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TEACHING INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING COMMUNITY

306

professional learning. As well it challenges the power dynamics of teacher education

programs at both an institutional and an individual level.

The following section discusses the structure of the internship, the role of the mentor

teacher and co-teacher and the governance of the internship at Griffith University

Gold Coast campus. Both the Primary and Graduate Entry Bachelor of Education

programs have similar structures.

THE GOLD COAST INTERNSHIP HISTORY

In 1994, the Centre for Professional Development (CFPD) in the School of Education

and Professional Studies, Griffith University Gold Coast campus offered its first

internship as a voluntary program to a small cohort of Bachelor of Education (Primary)

students. Since then four different models of the internship have been designed and

now form a compulsory internship component of the Graduate Entry Bachelor of

Education (Primary), Bachelor of Education (Primary), Bachelor of Exercise

Science/Bachelor of Education and Master of Teaching. Throughout the development

of the internship, the Internship Management Committee, consisting of representatives

from Gold Coast Primary schools (government and non-government), Education

Queensland and Gold Coast campus academics, has maintained a significant role in

advising the Centre for Professional Development and the Internship Convenor on

internship matters. These matters include policies, procedures and issues related to

matching the co-teachers (teacher education student enrolled in the internship) with

mentors (an experienced classroom teacher) as well as the process of the internship. A

second committee, the Professional Studies Advisory group, also advises on matters

relating to the internship. This ensures collaboration between all stakeholders involved

in the partnership, so there is a sharing of common interests and goals.

Since the inception of the internship more than 700 graduate teachers have bene-

fited from the sustained classroom practice that is offered by the internship in the final

year of their teacher education program. The following comments are evaluations of

the internship by co-teachers that indicate the perceived value of the internship.

My internship has been a time of tremendous learning but incredibly

fulfilling as well. I feel in some ways like I have climbed Mt Everest: lots

of hard work, blood, sweat and tears, but what a thing to have achieved!

I could not have done it without Sue's support and encouragement, mod-

eling and guidance. It has been a real team effort and I am thankful that

Sue chose to share this journey with me.

Co-Teacher, 2002

I am able to see the "big picture" much better now. My focus has grown

from preparing one good lesson to planning a whole day to planing the

week and the unit. As I've grown I'm able to see and think further ahead

about the needs of the students and where I'd like to take them.

Co-Teacher, 2002

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

I have grown professionally during this internship – very much so (am

actually amazed at how much) – really feel like a teacher now!

Co-Teacher, 2002

The following section describes the dynamics of the internship as a shift takes place

in not only the teaching responsibility of both co-teacher and mentor teacher but also

in the roles of supervisor and student to mentor and co-teacher respectively.

THE INTERNSHIP PROCESS

In the internship a co-teacher and a mentor share a class for one school term. Mentors

play a crucial role in helping the co-teacher take on the responsibility for all aspects

of classroom teaching. The mentor teacher needs to know how and when to let go of

their responsibility and transfer it to their co-teacher. For some mentors this can be

most challenging. The challenge in a small number of cases arises when there is evi-

dence that the co-teacher is not confident and is not coping well with the class. The

urge to take back the responsibility for some is difficult for some mentors to resist.

My only concern is it is a long time for children to have instruction from

a student teacher if they have difficulty teaching a particular concept.

Mentor Teacher, 2002

It is during the extended classroom based experience, that students shift from the role

of teacher education student to that of a co-teacher (see Figure 20.1). In a small number

of internships, co-teachers are ready almost immediately to take full responsibility

for all aspects of classroom teaching at the beginning of the internship. In most cases

at the beginning of the internship, the co-teacher and the mentor teacher generally

start collaborative planning, teaching and assessing with the mentor teacher taking the

lead (see Figure 20.1 – Phase 1). The ultimate aim is for the co-teacher to have

complete responsibility for the whole class program in the last few weeks of the term

307

TEACHING INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING COMMUNITY

PHASES OF THE INTERNSHIP

Interim Report

Mentor Teacher

Does all the

planning,

teaching and Shift in responsibility

assessing in all

Key Learning Areas

Co-teacher

Does all the

planning,

teaching and

assessing in all

Ke y Learnin g Areas

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

Figure 20.1. Phases of the internship

308

(See Figure 20.1 – Phase 4). In the intervening period a collaborative teaching phase

occurs in the first weeks of the Internship (Phase2). In week 4 an interim report is

collaboratively written by the mentor teacher and the co-teacher to identify goals that

both recognises are important for the co-teacher's development. The interim report

evaluates the following areas: Preparation and Planning; Approaches to Teaching;

Relationships with Students; Working Collaboratively; and Professional Qualities.

Following this report the co-teacher takes on the role of a beginning teacher (Phase 3).

It is here that the shift in responsibility becomes apparent. This movement is depend-

ent upon the skills and confidence of the co-teacher and reflects their professional

maturity as a developing teacher. The following comment indicates the growth and

shift in responsibility that a co-teacher experiences during the different internship

phases.

Looking back, I can see how much I have developed in my skills as a

teacher since the start of term. The more you teach, the faster you

learn … For me, the first few days I was mostly focusing on settling into

the daily routine, and concentrating on preparing good lessons. By the

second week I was teaching half days and then full days soon afterwards,

but with Sue there to support the aspects I was unsure of, like the process

of going through the homework. By the end of 4 weeks I was ready to take

over the planning and majority of the teaching.

Term Two Co-Teacher, 2002

Before beginning an internship co-teachers receive a document titled Authorisation

to Teach from the Queensland Board of Teacher Registration. This document allows

them to assume full responsibility for the class following the completion of "safety

audit" by the school coordinator and the mentor teacher. The audit assesses the

co-teachers' competence in the areas of preparation and planning, approaches to

teaching, relationships with students, working collaboratively and professional qual-

ities. Hence co-teachers can be left alone in the classroom for significant time giving

them the opportunity to experience the full load of the internship. The school and the

university act collaboratively to publicly acknowledge the significant shift in role of

the co-teacher from T E student to co-teacher. Schools frequently present the

Authorisation to Teach document at a staff meeting to symbolise the co-teacher's

growth and development and their changing role. The Centre for Professional

Development provides a Griffith University 2002 Internship badge with the

co-teacher's name and school.

The mentor teacher

Since the first internship in 1994, the supply of mentor teachers has often outnum-

bered the number of co-teachers. Interns have been sought both by schools and by

individual teachers. The popularity of this program is in part because of the recogni-

tion of the benefits to the school, classroom and mentor teacher that result from tak-

ing on interns. These benefits are acknowledged in the following comments.

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

As a mentor teacher I was able to grow and learn during the internship.

It was a rewarding experience.

Mentor Teacher 2002

Children benefited by having another person, personality and model in

the classroom.

Mentor Teacher 2002

I have enjoyed working cooperatively with another teaching profes-

sional. Great for both parties in my case as our philosophies are similar

and we had strengths in varying areas. So both of us were able to learn

from each other.

Mentor Teacher 2002

The co-teacher was excellent. I really enjoyed working with her and

learnt heaps. I hope one day to teach with her.

Mentor Teacher 2001

The matching process

The matching of the co-teacher and mentor teacher is one that is carefully and

thoughtfully done to ensure a quality working partnership between the two. At the

end of their third year, students complete a Co-teacher Application form for place-

ment. This form allows the students to nominate the year level, class type, school

type, and characteristics of the mentor teacher they hope to be matched with during

their internship. These applications are sent to the School Coordinator of

Professional Field Studies in the schools selected. The School Coordinator uses this

information to identify suitable mentors. The nominated teachers are then consulted

regarding their willingness to mentor an intern. The list of the mentor teachers,

matched with their co-teachers, is sent back to the Centre for Professional

Development (CFPD) for processing and final approval by the Internship

Management Committee.

Cluster workshops

Gaffey and Porter (1990) discuss the necessity of mutually desired outcomes and

shared understandings of the goal of the internship for ensuring quality mentoring.

The shared vision and goals are integral to the success of the internship. Structures

need to be set up to ensure shared dialogue and communication prior to and during

the internship. Most importantly the communication needs to be three way, between

academics, the mentor and the co-teacher for sharing the vision and goal setting

processes. By doing this all stakeholders are able to contribute to the success of the

program. For this to occur prior to the internship an academic facilitates several clus-

ter workshops for both co-teachers and mentor teachers. These cluster workshops

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TEACHING INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING COMMUNITY

310

make use of the internship as a vehicle for promoting and sharing the common

interests, values and goals of the community of practice of both the school and the

university.

The main aims of the cluster workshops during the internship are for the Centre of

Professional Development to maintain contact with both co-teachers and mentors to

encourage active reflection. During reflection participants articulate what has been

learned through focussing on the objectives of their school community experience

and critically reviewing their own progress as mentor or intern. In this case reflection

becomes the method by which self-directed learning can occur. Participants critically

reflect on their practice, reach reasoned conclusions and modify their practice to

enable further opportunity for learning and development. The consequence of this

reflection is that individual and collective confidence is enhanced.

The cluster workshops also become a time for information giving, problem solv-

ing and goal setting. Thus the outcomes of the cluster workshops include increased

collegiality and collaboration. Many of the features of a learning community are out-

lined by Hough and Paine (1997) and can be identified in cluster workshops. For

example, they suggest that a learning community consists of a shared vision, shared

beliefs, personal mastery and team learning. These can be heard in the following

comments.

Great to hear other teachers'experiences problems/successes etc and go

back to launch into the next section of the internship

Mentor Teacher, 2001

It has been great to network with other mentor teachers and form

common agreements about the internship program

Mentor Teacher, 2001

During the internship period a three-day mentor workshop is provided to all mentor

teachers by the CFPD to further develop their skills of mentoring. The cost neutral

aspect of the workshop is a significant feature. This can occur because the co-teacher

takes responsibility for the class while the mentor teacher attends the workshop. A

recent further development of this concept is to offer four days of workshops

throughout the year to build on the reflective abilities of mentors. The outcome of the

workshops is for mentors to become active professionals through developing a

deeper understanding of themselves as reflective practitioners.

The internship launch

The launch of the internship has become an important event that symbolises the signif-

icance of the internship for the university, school and T E students. The launch involves

a large group meeting of academics, the internship management committee, school

coordinators, mentor teachers and co-teachers. This meeting is particularly relevant as it

serves as a time for discussing with all mentors philosophical change from teacher edu-

cation student to co-teacher. It also is one where mentor teachers, co-teachers and school

coordinators from past internships speak of the highs and lows of their experiences.

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

The tension of the internship

Earlier in the chapter we referred to the tensions that can present in a learning com-

munity. In particular these tensions can be observed in the Gold Coast internship

when the shift occurs in the final stage of the internship when the role of mentor

teacher changes to that of evaluator. This role change takes place because the intern-

ship is used by employers as a process for ranking the teaching ability of prospective

employees. The role of the mentor is to assign a numerical to the co-teacher based

mainly on their teaching performance during the internship. The problem here is that

the role of the supportive mentor as critical evaluator is paradoxical in nature. Future

plans by employing authorities to utilise independent evaluators will overcome this

role conflict.

Predictors of internship success

In evaluating the success of internships in general, Beard and Morton (1999) indicate

the following criteria as essential: intern (co-teacher) academic preparedness, initia-

tive, positive attitude, quality of school supervision and employers practices and poli-

cies. The academic preparedness occurs through the university courses that have

close links to the six practicums prior to the internship occurring throughout the

degree program. Some of the assessment for the courses frequently depends on work

undertaken in the practicum. This acknowledges Gaffey and Porter's (1990) observa-

tion that the reason for the gap between university theory and teaching practice is the

lack of communication and collaboration between stakeholders. In particular the

internship overcomes this through its emphasis on effective communication between

schools and the university.

Frequently the co-teachers' initiative and positive attitude are enhanced through

spending their final practicum prior to the internship in their internship classroom.

This allows them to become familiar with the classroom and have a good knowledge

of the students and the mentor teachers teaching and mentoring style. This prior

experience allows the internship to begin relatively smoothly. The quality of the

school supervision is ensured when the mentor teachers are offered mentoring work-

shops to further develop their skills. In addition the cluster workshops provide oppor-

tunities for networking and sharing skills and expertise with other mentors.

Employers' practices and policies are communicated to co-teacher throughout the

duration of the degree program. A particular emphasis is provided prior to the intern-

ship when an information day is held for co-teachers. On this day representatives

from BTR and prospective employers such as Education Qld and Catholic Education

present students with relevant information regarding teacher registration require-

ments and the process of applying for teaching positions.

EVALUATION

The internship is evaluated through the use of an evaluation form that is completed

by co-teachers and mentor teachers in the last cluster workshop. The evaluation form

311

TEACHING INTERNSHIPS AND LEARNING COMMUNITY

312

provides teachers with the opportunity to comment on areas such as initiative in plan-

ning and teaching, ability to plan and teach independently, assessing student learning

outcomes, implementing classroom and student management plans as well as becom-

ing part of the school and overall rating for the internship. The information is collated

and presented as data graphs (Figures 20.2 and 20.3) within a written report. The

report goes to all schools, and is presented to Gold Coast campus school committee.

The findings of the report are presented at a meeting of the Internship Management

Committee who use these results to further refine the internship for the following

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

0.5

1. 5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Co Teachers B Ed

Mentors Teachers B Ed

Co Teachers GE

Mentor Teachers GE

Prior to Internship End of Internship

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

Co Teachers GE Mentor Teachers GE Co Teacher B Ed Mentor Teachers GE

Overall

Figure 20.2. Becoming part of the school

Figure 20.3. Overall rating for the internship

year. This ensures that the governance of the internship remains as a partnership

between the university and the schools.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter we have argued that education reforms have led to many Australian

universities introducing internships as part of their teacher education programs. In

many cases the internship has encouraged the development of a learning community

between schools and the university. Since its inception in 1994, the internship offered

by Griffith University, Gold Coast campus has contributed to the development of a

learning community that involves a three way partnership between the university,

schools and TE students. Such a partnership provides professional growth and devel-

opment for all stakeholders by providing opportunities for teachers to become mentors,

for schools to be exposed to new ideas and innovative practice, for TE students to put

theory into practice in a supportive learning context and university academics to

witness the outcome of their teaching. As well the internship encourages shared gov-

ernance of the teacher education program by legitimising the voice of TE student,

mentor and academic. At the same time we acknowledge the impact that the tensions

that exist within the internship have on the learning community. It is this acknowl-

edgment that assists us to continuously reflect and improve the internship thus offering

an experience that will continue to develop a quality learning community.

REFERENCES

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Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher Education Project. Canberra: Australian Council of

Deans of Education.

Beard, F. and Morton, L. (1999) Effects of Internship Predictors on Successful Field Experiences.

Journalism & Mass Communicator Educator, vol. 53, 4, pp. 42–53.

Binnaford, G. and Hanson, D. (1995) Beginning with the group: Collaboration as the Cornerstone of

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Board of Teacher Registration, Queensland. (1999) Guidelines on the Acceptability Teacher Education

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Registration.

Board of Teacher Registration, Queensland. (2003) The Multiple Faces of Internships: Report of Phase one

of a BTR project on Internships in Preservice Teacher Education. Toowong, Queensland: Board of

Teacher Registration.

Cameron, R. (2001) Identifying the Developmental Phases Encountered by Beginning Teachers During an

Internship. Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Conference, December 2–6,

2001. Fremantle, Western Australia.

Cochran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S. (1999) The Teacher Research Movement: A Decade Later. Educational

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Cole, D., Tomlin, J. and Renick, P. (1999) School renewal: Analysis and Findings from a School-University

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Darling-Hammond, L. (1997) The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000) How Teacher Education Matters. Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 51, 30,

pp. 166–173.

Dobbins, R. (1997) Exploding the Isolation of the Practicum. York: University of York.

Gaffey, C. and Porter, R. (1990) Seminars for Co-operating Teachers: Are They Effective? Journal of

Teacher Practice, vol. 10, 2, pp. 29–30.

Gallego, M. (2001) Is Experience the Best Teacher? The Potential of Coupling Classroom and

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Retallick, J., Cocklin, B., Coombe, K. (eds). Learning Communities in Education: Issues,

Strategies and Contexts. London: Routledge, pp. 44–59.

Harvey, L., Geall, V. and Moon, S. (1998) Work Experience: Expanding Opportunities for

Undergraduates. Birmingham: Centre for Research into Quality (CRQ) and Association of

Graduate Recruiters (AGR).

Hatton, N. (1996) Changing Initial Teacher Education – Limitations to Innovation in the United States,

Australia and the United Kingdom. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 21, 2, pp. 35–42.

Hough, M. and Paine, J. (1997) Creating Quality Learning Communities. Melbourne: Macmillan

Education.

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Journeys of discovery. Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Conference,

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Schrum, L., and Berenfield, B. (1997) Communities of practice, teaching and learning in the information

age: A guide to educational telecommunications. Sydney: Allyn & Bacon.

LORELEI CARPENTER AND BETTE BLANCE

SECTION FOUR

TEACHER INDUCTION: FROM NEOPHYTE TO

PROFESSIONAL IN THREE EASY STEPS

INTRODUCTION

There has been great focus on the qualifications and quality of P-12 teachers for the

last decade in the U.S. (Ingersoll, 2001) and according to Cochran-Smith (2004, p. 3),

"a new consensus has emerged that teacher quality is one of the most, if not the most

significant factor in students' achievement and educational improvement." A major

goal of the Unites States' No Child Left Behind Act signed in January 2002, is that all

students will have "highly qualified teachers". Highly qualified has typically been

defined as teachers who have subject matter knowledge and verbal ability (cited in

Paige, 2002). There seems to be an underlying message that anyone can be a teacher

if she has or he has the appropriate subject matter knowledge, with pedagogy

regarded as unnecessary or less important. Teacher educators and researchers have

not been able to make a convincing argument to the public as well as to politicians

that they do have effective programs to train and produce qualified teachers. Rice (as

cited by Cochran-Smith, 2004) cautions that many aspects of a teacher's background

are important to consider – teacher preparation and experience, as well as test scores.

Ingersoll (2002, p. 17) argues "the prevailing policy response to staff classrooms

with qualified teachers has been an attempt to increase the supply of teachers." One

way the federal government (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) has proposed to

increase teacher supply is to offer alternate routes to certification and eliminate all

requirements and policies that are not based on scientific evidence. Of course, this

last effort has brought a host of criticisms and justly so (Darling-Hammond and

Youngs, 2002).

At the same time the U.S. struggles with increasing the supply of "highly quali-

fied" teachers, there is a struggle to retain teachers – especially those progressing

through their first years in the profession. There is much debate about the teacher

shortage, but most would agree that there is not a simple solution (Rosenholtz and

Simpson, 1990; Curan et al ., 2000; Ingersoll, 2002, 2004). What is known with some

confidence is that American schools will need approximately 870,000 teachers in the

next ten years (Curan et al ., 2000). While in some geographical areas of the country,

there is a surplus of teachers, because of "distributional problems", it is often hard to

get this overabundance of teachers to move to areas where they are most needed

(Darling-Hammond, 1999). Hence, state licensure programs and policy makers have

attempted to create beginning teacher induction programs (Gold, 1996; Darling-

Hammond, 1999; Curan et al ., 2000) with the goal of minimizing new teacher attrition,

as well as improving teacher quality for teacher candidates entering the educational

317

IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

21. WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS:

AN AMERICAN TRADITION OF

"PAYING ONE'S DUES"

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 317–330.

318

field. One might surmise that funding for such induction programs signals a belief

that supported novices are more likely to be successful, quality teachers and thus

more likely to maintain their employment as teachers.

Even if recruitment efforts could increase the overall number of teachers coming

into America's educational system, if teachers are leaving at a greater rate, there is no

gain. The question then becomes, why do teachers leave? Is it a question of teachers

not having sufficient content knowledge? Is it because they haven't been well

prepared? Or is it that they are overwhelmed by the challenges they face? It is the

contention of the authors of this chapter that teachers, especially new teachers, can

face insurmountable work challenges that often frustrate, and ultimately encourage

even well prepared and supported new teachers to leave the field.

Induction programs have been proposed as a means for promoting new teacher

retention and professional growth (CCTC, 1992). Most induction programs utilize a

master or mentor teacher who provides direct support to the new teacher. In states

like California, attrition rates demonstrate that 94% of first year teachers are still

employed in public education compared to 89% nationally, and that 84% of the

1995–1996 teachers were still active in education after four years compared to 67%

nationally (California Commission on Teacher credentialing, 2002b). Other states,

such as Ohio and New York, and New Jersey, have also successfully implemented

induction programs (Looney, 1997; Darling-Hammond, 1999). Elements of these

programs include but are not limited to mentor teacher observations with construc-

tive feedback, teacher reflection, emotional support, and assessment support. Major

thrusts of these programs include helping the beginning teacher organize the class-

room environment, plan and implement sound instructional lessons, actively engage

students in the learning process, and facilitating communication among the teacher,

the students, and their families.

Thus, formalized induction programs have been designed with the overarching

goal of promoting new teacher development and retention. One might assume that

such programs work with teachers who have been carefully and thoughtfully placed

within contexts that will support their growth and retention, especially when the

shortage of teachers is at a critical stage. Ingersoll (1999) and Rosenholtz and

Simpson (1990) argue that organizational context is most probably a strong influence

on teacher attrition and that induction programs often have little or no influence in

such cases. Yet, these authors would propose that appropriate assignments for new

teachers are often not made – even within districts experiencing huge enrollment

growth and districts that have committed to induction for their new teachers. In fact,

this may be the seldom admitted, hidden issue of the teaching profession in America.

The purpose of this chapter, then, is to examine the placements of novice teachers

within an induction consortium of 56 school districts. The literature suggests that

giving new teachers protected assignments promotes teacher retention as well as long

term satisfaction and perceived success. Yet our work demonstrates that even within

an induction program that attends to teacher assignment with a goal of retention,

novices continue to be placed in settings that include challenges other veterans in the

same sites do not face. We attempt to delve into the how's and why's of new teacher

IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

placement within these American schools, revealing potential justifications for

continuance of this poor practice.

Therefore, this chapter will:

●Identify the situational contexts beginning teachers experience in their first years

of teaching within an induction program;

●Investigate the relationship between the contextual challenges as compared to veteran

experiences at the same work site;

●Determine whether providing districts with informational research about the

contextual challenges of their beginning teachers influences future practices of the

school districts.

Additionally, we will discuss our informal observations and interactions with the

field to propose both realities and perceptions that result in continued inappropriate

expectation for novice teachers – even within an induction program that attends to

teacher assignments.

LITERATURE REVIEW

It is a well accepted fact that beginning teachers are often given the hardest classroom

assignments with more difficult students, often with few professional resources to

help them (Reinman and Parramore, 1994). This practice has received some attention

in the research (Clift et al ., 1995) but little consideration in the schools themselves.

This may be due to lack of knowledge but also could relate to how schools and school

districts are organized.

Ingersoll (1999) looked at the effects of school and organizational characteristics

on teacher turnover and teacher staffing problems. Using the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES) Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) and the Teacher

Follow-up Survey (TFS), he found that although teacher turnover could be accounted

for by some teachers' characteristics such as age, grade or field level; significant

effects were also due to school and organizational characteristics. In this case, he

defined school and organizational characteristics as support from the school admin-

istration, salaries, student discipline problems and faculty decision-making. The data

in his study suggest that recruitment alone will not resolve teacher staffing problems

but improvements in organizational contexts will contribute to lower rates of teacher

turnover, and will "ultimately aid the performance of the schools." (p. 24).

Rosenholtz and Simpson (1990) examined workplace conditions and their

relationship to teacher commitment. In a large scale study of 1,213 teachers from 78

elementary schools in Tennessee, the researchers found six organizational conditions

of schools affect job commitment. Both novice and experienced teachers were studied

using several instrumental indexes that looked at organizational supports. Results

showed that novice teachers were more influenced by organizational factors such as

managing students' behavior and principal buffering. Principal buffering explains

actions by the administration to "reduce extraneous forces that may upset the pursuit

of organizational goals." (p. 245). According to Rosenholtz and Simpson (1999),

"principal buffering includes: attending to material requirements of instructional

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WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

320

programs, clerical assistance for routine paperwork, mobilizing outside resources,

and protecting classroom time from unnecessary interruption." (p. 245). On the other

hand, experienced teachers are affected by organizational qualities that relate to core

instructional tasks. In essence, Rosenholtz and Simpson's study demonstrates that

novice teachers are more vulnerable to the school's situational context whereas expe-

rienced teachers are more resilient. Experienced teachers tend to worry more about

issues and problems that impact their actual teaching of the curriculum in contrast to

new teachers who cannot focus on the core instructional issues until the teaching

context is under control.

Both of these studies give evidence that teacher attrition is probably more complex

than once thought. Previous research suggested that new teachers often leave the field

in their first five years of teaching (Huling-Austin, 1986) because of reality shock,

inability to adjust to schools' expectations, problems with student discipline problems,

and general disillusionment about the profession. The profession has promoted induc-

tion programs to help the beginning teacher deal with these contextual issues as an

accepted reality rather than working to systemically change the complex educational

environments in which novice teachers often find themselves (Huling-Austin, 1986).

Fischer and Shipley (1995) argue that site administrators at both the district and

site level need to be trained to understand that placements and assignments given to

beginning teachers often determine the success of the beginning teachers. Grade or

subject assignment, class composition, physical facilities, and extra duties assigned,

can all negatively impact a novice teacher's ability to cope in the classroom (Kurtz,

1983). It may be, though, that training administrators is not enough.

Informal discussion with personnel directors and site principals has revealed to

these researchers some of the real issues that administrators face when placing new

teachers. For example, the nine month calendar of most American schools prompts

assignments on a yearly basis. The transient nature of Americans often results in

changing and unpredictable school enrollments. In fact, enrollments can continually

change throughout the first months of the academic year as parents register new

students as much as two months late. Principals may find themselves two months

into the year with increased class size, in need of new teachers. This requires recon-

stituting class make-up and can result in combination classrooms, those including

more than one grade level. Parents and their children are distressed by change, often

resulting in pressure on the administrator to assign the newly hired teacher to the

combination class rather than veterans of the same site. Thus, the novice must handle

the anxiety of the uprooted students and their parents, establishment of a class schedule

and routine, and creation of a system for dealing with multiple curriculums while the

veterans stay within the cozy, already established setting with content students and

parents and one curriculum. Even administrators who resist parental pressure and

have veteran teachers who are willing to take on the challenges may find that con-

tracts developed by their district's teacher unions may actually prohibit reassignment

of veteran teachers after the start of the school year.

In fact, the problem of giving beginning teachers difficult challenges in their first

years of teaching may be a philosophical internal belief system that permeates

IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

American culture in other careers or attitudes that goes far beyond the field of teaching.

People need to "pay their dues." Everyone has to suffer the hard times as those who

preceded them did. It makes us tough. It makes us better. It makes us appreciate the

difficult road we had to maneuver once we attain a more reasonable situation.

THE CALIFORNIA CONTEXT

An anecdotal mentor training experience from an induction program illustrates this

belief:

Approximately twenty-five mentor teachers were gathered as part of a training

seminar. The topic for that day was protected assignments for beginning teachers. The

trainers were sharing some of the literature on beginning teachers and the elements of

school context that were most helpful, when a thirty-five year veteran burst out that he

should have the best students and the best classes because he deserved it. According to

him, new teachers needed to serve their time. Of interest, is that he was a school union

leader in the district. Another support provider jumped up and shouted that the other

mentor was a sorry excuse for a support provider and should not be in this induction

program. He accused the mentor of being harmful to the beginning teachers assigned

to him. The trainers eventually diffused the situation without the two support providers

coming to blows, but the entire experience was difficult for all the participants.

This experience is not atypical within the trainings of our induction program. Each

year, there are mentor teachers who feel passionately on both sides of the issue. Some

would like to see more protected assignments for their mentees. They seem to recog-

nize that their job of providing support would be lessened if their novices were in a

more typical assignment. Others express concern that they had to go through similar

difficulties in their first years and they have now earned their right to be in the more

ideal settings. In fact, they suggest that challenging assignments for new teachers can

help to "weed out" the weak, leaving only the best within the profession. It appears

to be very similar to America's "boot camp" mentality within the military. If recruits

cannot make it through the physically grueling six week boot camp, they are not worthy

of pursuing the military route.

Clearly, teachers in America have a wide range of views on what are appropriate

assignments for entrants into their profession. There is a passion and commitment on

both sides. The controversy was never more evident than when the state of California

made a large scale effort to change policies involving school context for beginning

teachers. In 2001, the state attempted to pass the Standards of Quality and

Effectiveness for Professional Teacher Induction Programs. These standards were

developed to identify both induction program standards and teacher competency

standards for those within their first two years of teaching. Interestingly, two of the

program standards specifically addressed challenging assignments for new teachers.

Clearly, the state was acknowledging the importance of appropriate placements for

novice teachers.

The California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC) initially accepted the

first version of the induction standards in September, 2001. Immediately, controversy

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WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

322

began with policy makers and collective bargaining units. There was substantial

resistance from state bargaining units on numerous proposed changes to the stan-

dards including changes related to challenging assignments for new teachers. The

primary concern voiced by the bargaining units was that the schools themselves need

to continue to be responsible for local employment issues and the state should not be

dictating any policy related to these issues. Administrative groups also had issue with

the standards' direct assignment of responsibility for appropriate placement of novice

teachers to school leaders.

The CCTC responded by "unadopting" the standards so that more discussion

could take place among all constituents. A compromised text was developed and the

new version of the standards was adopted in 2002a.

The following excerpts (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2002)

demonstrate original text of the two standards and changes that were ultimately made

after the standards were received by the field. Italic type illustrates the standard and

text. Brackets and bold type reflect changes or deletions:

Standard 5: Articulation with Professional Teacher Preparation Programs

The local induction program articulates with local professional teacher

preparation programs and collaborates regularly with local human

resource professionals responsible for employing assigning teachers.

The program staff advises new hires on eligibility and program and pro-

gram credential requirements.

There were six program elements that detailed the component factors of

Standard 5. Three items were deleted. Item 5 (f) was completely deleted

from the proposal and it specifically addressed challenging assignments.

It is described as:

5(f) [The program leaders(s) communicates with school district lead-

ers and administrators regarding the nature and extent of challeng-

ing assignments that may jeopardize participating teachers' success

or create the need for additional support services.These assignments

may include combined classes, out of content field classes, multiple

preparations, lacked of assigned classroom, shared resources and

facilities, and highly challenging students.]

Clearly, specific definitions of challenging assignments and encouragement regard-

ing the issue were omitted from standard 5.

Standard 11: Roles and Responsibilities of K-12 School Organizations

The induction program informs school administrators and policy boards in

the design, and implementation, and ongoing evaluation of the induction

program. K-12 school leaders set policies and take action to promote the

success of participating teachers [through assignment practices] taking in

participants'novice status into consideration, [and by providing additional

time and resources to teachers assigned to more challenging settings]

IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

There were four program elements with multiple components. Item 11

(b) had the most changes:

11(b) The K-12 school organization provides appropriate support serv-

ices, [appropriate to the working conditions experienced by begin-

ning teachers. Efforts are made to secure assignments for beginning

teachers that optimize the chances for success.]

Standard 11 was also greatly altered in relation to this issue as mention of responsi-

bility for assignment was deleted from the described role of K-12 school leaders.

Thus, these researchers concluded that not only were the individual mentor teach-

ers with whom they worked invested in this topic, the profession as a whole viewed

it as critical. It was these kinds of issues that made these researchers investigate the

placements of novice teachers within the induction program in which they worked.

Additionally, they wondered if their induction program could make a difference in

the kind of placements that beginning teachers experienced. The question became,

did a systematic, comprehensive, beginning teacher support program contribute to

beginning teachers having fewer challenging assignments than what might be

expected based on the literature?

BACKGROUND

The studied program investigated here is a part of a California-mandated effort to

support beginning teachers in their first two years of teaching. The program is

located in Southern California and serves a geographically diverse region with a

total number of square miles of 40,506 miles or 65,186 kilometers. Within its first

year, the program served 190 beginning teachers in 17 school districts through the

use of 55 mentors. This induction program has received state funding continu-

ously since 1993–1994. Within the 2001–2002 and 2002–2003 years, approxi-

mately 1200 beginning teachers and 575 mentors from 56 school districts were

served in each year, respectively.

The California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP) published in 1997,

provided the theoretical underpinnings for the process of support and assessment in

induction. Since the inception of these standards, most districts have incorporated

connected inservices for all teachers. Teacher education programs in the state have

also adapted their programs and coursework to address the standards. The California

Formative Assessment System for Teachers (CFASST), designed by Educational

Testing Services in 1998, is utilized to guide support of new teachers within the pro-

gram. This assessment system information has also been disseminated to most school

districts and teacher education programs. For the purposes of this study, only the plan

for mentor development and outcomes will be examined.

As the consortium was established, districts were asked to sign a Memorandum of

Understanding (MOU) which outlined budgetary agreements, services rendered as

well as recommendations for selection criteria for mentors. The selection of mentors,

however, is specifically governed by collective bargaining units.

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WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

324

Mentors initially completed a five-day summer training and four to five follow up

trainings during the year to prepare and support them to implement a formative

assessment system with new teachers. Specific objectives of the training included the

following:

●Develop mentor skills in formative assessment strategies including classroom

observation, lesson plan analysis, guided reflection, and goal setting.

●Prepare mentors to interact with beginning teachers through peer and cognitive

coaching methods.

●Develop mentor knowledge and understanding of the California Standards for the

Teaching Profession (CSTP), the foundation of the induction program.

●Provide continual support and encouragement for mentors throughout the year of

induction.

Mentors documented all work with their mentees over the course of the year.

Written work included documentation of the following:

●the context of the new teacher's class, school, district, and community,

●standards-based connections noted during classroom observations,

●summaries and suggestions based upon gathered evidence,

●reflections of the new teacher

●standards-based assessments completed by the mentee with guidance of the

mentor, and

●goals and action plans for completion by the beginning teacher.

An induction Governance Team was created at the inception of the program and

included a director, teacher representatives (these Project Teachers are classroom

teachers on assignment who serve assigned geographical areas) and six full time

professors from a nearby university. A Governance Team was responsible for devel-

opment and implementation of trainings to supplement state developed curriculum

materials.

The authors of this chapter, worked continuously since 1993 in the training and

began to be very interested in the stories that mentor teachers told about the work-

place issues and challenges that their new teachers faced and what, if any, were ways

that they could help them in those challenges. After, becoming more literate about

workplace contexts, a research agenda emerged.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

In order to investigate the placements of the induction program's novice teachers, a

decision was made to survey their assigned mentors. The novices themselves might

well have biased opinions. Mentors were seen as having more understanding of a

"typical" placement within their school or district.

Mentors were surveyed at approximately the midpoint of the year in order to

provide them with ample time to have developed knowledge of their new teachers'

settings. During training sessions, mentors were asked to identify the contexts of

each of their mentees' classrooms. (Mentors could be serving from one to four

novices.) Survey instruments asked mentor teachers to rate whether or not any of

IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

eleven challenging aspects were present in the teaching assignment of their supervisees

to a greater degree than that of experienced teachers at the same site.

The following challenges were included on a survey using a likert scale.

●Teaching out of content area preparation

●Teaching out of grade level preparation

●Larger number of different types of preparations than experienced teachers at

same site

●Combination grade levels

●Overflow classroom (taking students from over-filled classrooms)

●No real classroom (on stage, in hallway …)

●Roving teacher (moves classroom periodically)

●Classroom doesn't include basic materials &/or resources (no lab or no texts while

similar teachers have them.)

●Higher percentage of challenging students than most experienced teachers at the

same site

●Larger number of students than most experienced teachers at same site

●Assignment has been changed more than that of most experienced teachers

●Other

If the mentor teacher strongly agreed the challenge was present, a value of five was

assigned. If they strongly disagreed that the challenge was present, a value of one was

marked. Three additional options were provided, and raters were asked to identify

and rate any challenges not specifically described in the survey. A total "challenge"

score was computed by calculating an average of the one-to-five responses given to

the eleven challenge items.

RESULTS

Surveys were received for 475 new teachers in 2001–2002 and 1025 surveys were

received for 2002–2003. The number of surveys turned in the second year increased

substantially because district liaisons (persons responsible for coordinating individual

district programs) encouraged mentor participation.

Using Figures 21.1 and 21.2, the most frequently identified challenge was having

a higher percentage of challenging students than more experienced teachers at the

same site (25% for 01–02 and 23% for 02–03). The next highest challenge in 01–02

was beginning teachers lacking materials at 21.8 percent, but this was reduced to 13

percent by the 02–03 year. Following in third were teachers who had combination

classrooms, 21.2 percent in 01–02 and 16.4 percent in 02–03.

Except for the out of content area, all other ten categories dropped in overall

percentages in the positive direction. The greatest change from 01–02 to 02–03 was

in the category lacking materials (total change 8.8 percent) and the second greatest

change was in combination classrooms (total change  4.8 percent). The researchers

could not explain these overall changes from 01–02 to 02–03 as a result of any external

factors within the individual school districts involved in the consortium except for

the fact that the districts had been given aggregate data for the consortium and their

325

WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

326

7.7 5.9

10.9

16.4

9.8

Cummulative percent

Out of Content Area

Out of Grade Level

Many Different Preps

Combination Class

Overflow Classrom

No Real Classroom

Roving Teacher

Lacking Materials

Many Challenging Students

Larger Number of Students

Assignment Changed

Answer cate

3.4

7.0

13.0

23.0

4.8

7.3

Figure 21.1. Teachers'challenging assignments, 2001–2002 (N 475)

7.2 7.5

21.2

10.6

6.2

11.0

21.8

25.0

6.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Cummulative percent

Out of Content Area

Out of Grade Level

Many Different Preps

Combination Class

Overflow Classrom

No Real Classroom

Roving Teacher

Lacking Materials

Many Challenging Students

Larger Number of Students

Assignment Changed

Answer category

13.4

8.5

Figure 21.2. Teachers'challenging assignments, 2002–2003 (N 1025)

own individual district information in the first year. Discussion took place throughout

the consortium about the importance of giving more appropriate assignments to new

teachers. In the second academic year, the aggregated information for the entire

consortium and individual districts was again presented. This in fact has become a

continued endeavor.

It is still true, however, even through there has been positive change between two

years of working with school districts, beginning teachers are still experiencing more

workplace challenges than experienced teachers who may be better equipped to deal

with such challenges.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

It becomes clear that even within a comprehensive, well-articulated induction

program, beginning teachers still experience more teaching challenges compared to

veteran teachers. Forty-five to fifty-nine percent of these new teachers were reported

as having at least one challenge that other veteran teachers at the same site were not

facing. It is difficult to fathom how a profession can take extreme challenges such as

lack of student and teacher texts or lack of actual classrooms and assign those con-

texts to those newest to the profession. One might wonder how a teacher might not

have a classroom, but due to increasing enrollments and low budgets, some teachers

find themselves teaching in hallways or even on a stage.

When compared to other professions like the medical profession, America's defi-

nition of the easing recruits into responsibilities does not appear to measure up.

While medical interns are certainly given grueling schedules, they do not yet have

sole responsibility for the decisions and actions they take. And patients with the most

difficult to diagnose and treat conditions are typically assigned to specialists rather

than new recruits. In America, the newest teacher can be assigned to serve the same

number and level of challenging clients as a veteran of thirty years, and in fact, as this

study demonstrates, often does to a greater extent. It appears that America's teaching

profession is indeed a "flat" profession. One enters with the exact same responsibilities

that one has when one retires.

And yet, we in America know that we face a severe teacher shortage. We in

America are concerned that we prepare and keep quality teachers. We in America

want to do our best to meet the learning needs of our children. It appears that our best

effort is to simply acknowledge that we inappropriately assign many challenges to

new teachers and attempt to provide additional support to these teachers through

induction services.

Yet, there may be some reason for optimism. Our results suggest that there may a

means for decreasing such assignments. Our induction program is a consortium serv-

ing over fifty school districts. As such, it does not have direct responsibility for

teacher placement practices. Still, as an induction program, it is attempting to address

the issue of challenging assignments by providing information to the school districts.

At the beginning of the year of this study, districts were provided with their own data

and program aggregate data regarding the kind and quantity of challenging assignments

327

WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

328

that new teachers are experiencing in the consortium. Discussion on current literature

on protected assignments also followed for beginning teachers. The results of this

study suggest that such information may be helpful in reducing challenging assign-

ments for new teachers. It is hoped that consistent feedback to districts about how

their teachers are faring in their teaching contexts will promote more thoughtful

attention to their assignments. This information can serve to initiate dialogue about

related policies and actions. Both district administrators and teachers must not turn a

blind eye to the context of novice teachers.

What are some of the measures or efforts, then, that might improve the situational

contexts for new teachers? Weasmer and Woods (1998) suggest that getting the site

administrator involved as early as the hiring stage can help facilitate novice teacher

success. As the site administrator really gets to know the new teacher, then he/she can

balance workload, limit extracurricular assignments, and help new teachers understand

the expectations of the school organization.

Darling-Hammond (1999) charges school boards and superintendents to "end the

practice of assigning the most inexperienced teachers to teach the most disadvantaged

students with the heaviest loads and fewest supports. They should place beginning

teachers in professional practice schools with reduced teaching loads." (pp. 15–22) It

is interesting to note that she does not direct this charge to teachers'unions, although

she does say that school district officials should develop induction programs for

beginning teachers incorporating internships in professional practice schools and

mentoring through peer review and assistance programs.

Chuubuck et al . (2001) maintain that for new teachers to "feel safe" and success-

ful in their first years of teaching, support needs to come from the outside (partner-

ships among educational institutions such as universities) and inside (on-site support

and contextually relevant information). Thus, new teachers can benefit from support

from multiple agencies.

As researchers, we plan to continue our effort to increase the dialogue regarding

placement practices of new teachers. As induction trainers engaging with mentors, we

thankfully are finding less open resistance to protected assignments for new teachers

as the annual discussion occurs. In fact, some mentors have encouraged us to revisit

our survey to enable them to identify challenges that novices face at a higher rate than

veterans at other school sites. They accurately point out that most districts have certain

schools, often disadvantaged in location, resources and by their high percentage of

challenging students and that these schools tend to have a higher percentage of new

teachers than other schools in the same districts. We are pursuing this agenda and are

thankful for teachers who have insight and concern for their new colleagues.

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IRIS RIGGS AND RUTH SANDLIN

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Ingersoll. R. M. (2002) The Teacher Shortage: A Case of Wrong Diagnosis and Wrong Prescription.

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Developing the Teacher Workforce: The 103rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of

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pp. 40–42.

329

WORKPLACE CONTEXTS OF NEW TEACHERS

Teacher education in the United States is in a quandary. Colleges and Schools of

Education cannot – or will not – prepare a sufficient number of teachers to meet the

enormous demands of large, primarily urban school districts. In the next decade, the

nation's schools will need to hire 2.5 million teachers – about the same as the num-

ber now working (Murrell, 2001, p. 11). The National Commission on Teaching and

America's Future (NCTAF) has urged lawmakers, politicians, and bureaucrats to

examine the issue of teacher shortages. Vartan Gregorian, President of the Carnegie

Corporation in New York, recently asked:

How is it possible that the United States, which claims to have three-

fourths of the world's finest universities – and boasts 1,300 schools of

education – has, in recent years, not only lacked qualified teachers but

also had to venture beyond its own borders to find them?

(Education Week, 2004, p. 36)

Of the students who graduate from 4-year teacher education programs, only 60%-70%

enter teaching the year after graduation, and only about 70% of them are still teaching

3 to 5 years later (NCTAF, 1996). Too few teachers are coming in to the profession,

and too many are leaving the profession, claims NCTAF Chairman, Jim Hunt (2002).

HIGHLY-QUALIFIED TEACHERS – HIGH QUALITY TEACHING

In light of teacher shortages, the U.S. federal government has intervened to increase

the supply of public school teachers. The federal Elementary and Secondary

Education Act, known as "No Child Left Behind" (NCLB), has challenged school

districts to place a "highly qualified teacher" in every classroom by the year 2006.

Defining what that means and how to accomplish that feat remains the purview of

state legislatures, which are scrambling to meet federal demands while supporting

higher and higher standards for student achievement in local districts. "Highly-qualified"

is an adjective used to describe teachers'preparation that can be quantified, regulated

by authorities, and enacted in state statutes. It is a kind of standardized thought that

stands as a marker of the bureaucratic inroads made by NCLB. More and more, the

job of "highly qualified" teachers is to prepare students for centralized testing, which

is another form of standardized thought. Students spend countless hours, not in

discussion about ideas or concepts, but rather on mechanical, timed practice testing,

to pass a single test that determines not only their future but the future of their teachers

and principals.

331

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

22. RE-THINKING THE BASIS FOR "HIGH QUALITY"

TEACHING: TEACHER PREPARATION IN COMMUNITIES

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 331–342.

332

It makes intuitive sense for us to prepare teachers for what is. Pre-service teachers

should know how to help their students practice for standardized tests, and they should

understand the curriculum mandates of the state. We do have an obligation as teacher

educators to present these aspects of school practice to our prospective teachers.

However, novice teachers need to understand how the natural desire to say, "Just tell

me what to do" will not serve them optimally for the challenges they will face

(Bransford Derry, Berliner, and Hammerness, with Beckett, 2005, p. 77). Educators

complain that they are hemmed in by state regulations and thus have no room to

maneuver toward a more integrative curriculum or a greater use of student-led activi-

ties. However, what we assume about the reality of what is depends on how we

observe and analyze classroom and community life. One observer could see a well-

organized and productive classroom; another, a rigid environment where students only

answer and do not ask. Always, the what is can be contested and cannot be assumed.

HIGH-QUALITY TEACHING

The notion of a "high-quality" teacher is vital as a counterweight to the idea of being

"highly-qualified." In an attempt to address the quality of beginning teachers, U.S.

schools have focused on the idea of induction. The term, imported from the military

world, refers to the process by which teachers and administrators acclimate and

support new hires. Quality, from this perspective, frequently has been implicitly

measured by the degree to which a candidate has learned to assimilate, adapt, and

successfully become inducted into the often-isolated world of schooling.

For us, a definition of "quality" is open to interpretation and is negotiated among

colleagues; it cannot sensibly be legislated and should not be linked to simple

assimilation. The meaning of "high-quality" depends on the quality of teachers'prior

experiences, the nature of their classroom actions, and their reflective capabilities. In

this chapter we will look beyond traditional teacher preparation to see what is possible

when teacher educators create high-quality experiences that locate teacher preparation

in communities.

Zeichner et al . (1996) noted: "Community experiences in teacher education have

received only sporadic attention in the literature and in practice" (p. 176). While we

agree that much needs to be done in this regard, over the last decade more teacher edu-

cators have written about community experiences. Murrell (2001) categorized a "variety

of experiences" offered by teacher educators that take place in communities: brief,

course-related visits; student teaching in distant communities; and cultural immersion

experiences related to education. Many teacher education programs do incorporate

tutoring in community sites or some sort of community component in early field expe-

riences. The Harvard Family Research Project recommended that a family focus be

introduced to teacher training through community-based field experiences (Bradley,

1997). The University of Houston (Tellez and Cohen, 1996), Knox College (Beyer,

1991), the Teachers for Alaska program (Noordhoff and Kleinfeld, 1993), and the

University of Florida (Ross & Bondy, 1996) have incorporated major elements of com-

munity learning in their teacher education designs, as have numerous other programs.

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

Such programs should challenge prospective teachers to consider what could be ,

even in this time of stunted hopes and constricted intentions. Teacher educators must

expand the circle of who can teach teachers and where the lessons that inform, support,

and sustain teachers are learned. This chapter will describe through storied examples

what expanding the circle looks like in two cultural contexts: Chicago and rural

Veracruz. Our intention is to promote site-specific experimentation with a community

approach to teacher education.

WHO DO FUTURE TEACHERS LEARN FROM? CREATING

TRIANGLE PARTNERSHIPS IN CHICAGO

In teacher education, we are often encumbered by traditional systems for preparing

future teachers that are enormously difficult to dismantle. It is a reflection of what

Ball and Cohen call the conservatism of practice (1999), meaning that we teach

teachers in the way that we may have been taught, engaging them in an apprentice-

ship in a single classroom, modeling lessons after a single teacher, and encouraging

them to learn as quickly as possible how things are done in order to replicate and

repeat that practice when they have their own classrooms of students.

Our examination of teacher education in Chicago began with the acceptance of the

connection between schools and communities, which is not commonly considered in

schools of education. We also began with a guiding belief and considerable

experience in partnerships and a means to develop, implement, and critique teacher

education. And we asked ourselves a series of "what if" questions:

●What if prospective teachers worked in pairs throughout their internship experi-

ences?

●What if they established a long-term relationship with a team of teachers?

●What if teacher education students spent a month working with a school counselor

and made home visits as a part of that experience?

●What if we re-conceptualized the idea of mentoring, to include a partnership with

parents or community leaders as an integral part of a teacher education program?

●What if one of the mentors were an artist, a teen mom, a community organizer, a

school board member, a parent volunteer, or someone else outside the academic

courtyard?

These questions challenge us to move beyond the apprenticeship of observation

(Darling-Hammond, 2000) that frequently precedes the student teaching assignment.

This largely unstructured apprenticeship is essentially the model for recent alterna-

tive certification programs in the United States. In some cases, novice teachers with

temporary certification spend no time in college classrooms and learn all they need

to know, presumably, teaching on their own with minimal mentoring. This trend will

not result in the desired outcome in these times of teacher shortages – to retain high

quality teachers in diverse school settings. Easier routes to certification may attract

more new teachers, but will have less impact on the quality of those teachers because

there is no focus on the breadth, depth, and scope of new teachers' experiences.

Breadth refers to the variety of activities and settings for learning, depth is related to

333

RE-THINKING BASIS FOR "HIGH QUALITY" TEACHING

334

the length of time or intensity of activity in a setting, and scope connotes the range of

ideas and inquiries that frames the curriculum.

Breadth, depth, and scope are influenced greatly by who participates in and helps

to plan a field experience. Recently, the Arts Education Partnership (AEP) released a

report of a National Forum on Partnerships for Improving Teaching of the Arts

(2002). While their focus was on arts education, the findings are more widely

relevant. They wrote: "Universities have the primary responsibility for pre-service

training. While universities work closely with K-12 districts to prepare pre-service

teachers, collaboration with other partners is sparse" (p. 14). Jane Remer (1996)

continues this theme by describing a form of partnership that involves all constituencies

in a teacher education program design. If we were to take that notion seriously,

partnerships to teach teachers would become a joint venture, with multiple mentors

for teacher candidates.

In our investigation of a community teacher design in Chicago, we assigned

teacher candidates to community centers, after school programs, and city youth

organizations as a first step in a course we called Schooling in Communities. These

college sophomores and juniors developed skills in interviewing, observing, and

taking field notes in a research format long before they set foot in a classroom

to observe traditional teaching and learning. After completing an interview in a

non-school field site, one student commented: "I've never been asked to actually talk

to someone before since I've been in college. We're usually just asked to read and

research online or in the library."

In the course, Introduction to Schooling in Communities, we offered the initial

framework for joint ventures in which community partners helped to define teaching

for our students. These mentors surfaced in guided internships in which our students

spent required internship hours working directly with students, teachers, community

organizers, parents, and activists outside traditional classrooms. In the course, invited

speakers and challenging readings helped to bridge gaps between what the students

were seeing in the community, and what they thought they knew about schools,

students, and themselves. They explored these connections in on-line site group con-

versations and "presented" their site to the class at the end of the course. They linked

topics of asset-based community development, school reform, partnerships, and

views on teaching in communities with their own experiences in their sites. (See the

summary in Figure 22.1.)

A visit to Prologue Alternative School in Chicago introduced our university can-

didates to the notion that high school "push-outs" (the more correct term for many

drop-outs, in our city) have strong advice for prospective teachers, tempered by their

own experience and by their renewed conviction that education is important, despite

what their teachers and their former school lives have indicated. Some of the young

people had clear and concise advice for the prospective teachers: "Take your time

with students." "It's just like basketball … if you don't make it fun, kids won't play."

"Treat each other like family." "Slow down." These teen-age parents, former gang-

bangers, and occasional ex-cons became our students'teachers and mentors – if only

for a short time.

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

335

What is a guided internship?

The internship is a field experience in which students enrolled in the course observe in a

community organization or school setting, provide needed services to that organization,

and actively participate with staff and students as the sites propose. Students are required

to log a minimum of 40 hours at the site, which averages to 4 hours per week for the 10-

week quarter. Often, interns return to the site and continue to volunteer there after the

quarter is over.

The term "guided" is used to describe the internship because, although the university

students are intelligent, motivated, and enthusiastic, we know that they need some

coordination and leadership at the site in order to be successful and helpful to the

organization. Unlike more traditional tutoring or student volunteer programs, the

Schooling in Communities Guided Internship is intended to be a service project and an

outreach program that is linked directly to a Northwestern course in which partnerships,

community organizations, and school reform are discussed.

What is the Introduction to Schooling in Communities course about?

The goal of this course (open to sophomores and juniors) is to prepare prospective

teachers and others interested in community-based education initiatives to interact

meaningfully with community organizations that work with young people. Teaching and

learning occur throughout adolescents' lives; often we can learn about effective teaching

by looking outside of schools before we investigate pedagogy within classrooms. Guided

internship in a site, readings, and guest speakers enrich this course as participants explore

community organizations, structures for working with schools and teachers, and teaching

in nontraditional settings. The course is consistent with the Illinois Professional Teaching

Standards and Northwestern's Conceptual Framework.

What can interns do during a guided internship?

Each internship and each site is different. But we have found that the following four areas

best reflect the typical experiences that students have had or could have with a

school/organization:

I. Observation/Building Relationships

Setting a schedule/meeting the people at the site

Exchanging contact information

Taking field notes and observing activities

Asking questions/conducting an interview with a person on site

II. Planning/Researching

Attending planning meetings

Doing curriculum research/lesson planning as requested by site

leaders/teachers

Learning the specific tasks at that site for interns

III. Participating/Implementing

Working with students – small group, large group, individual

Co-teaching

Videotaping

Supervising youth activities

Mentoring

Working on projects with young people

Playing supervised sports or other activities with young people

Assisting with limited clerical or technology tasks for the organization

Assisting with limited tutoring

IV. Documenting/Assessing

For interns' own professional portfolios

For school's or organization's future use – curriculum design/

project documentation

Figure 22.1. Northwestern University's School of Education and Social Policy guided internships for

Introduction to Schooling in Communities

336

Latina mothers from a neighborhood association also became mentors for our

candidates. These mothers, speaking through an interpreter, explained how parents

are teachers, a concept that seems clichéd but that offered insight to many students.

The moms, working through a neighborhood association, have become a force in the

schools that our teacher candidates were visiting and that would some day employ

them. These mothers also took on the role of teacher educators as our university

interns worked beside them at Logan Square Neighborhood Association. Emily, a

student intern, reflected on the importance of these experiences:

Community organizations can offer the services of some of the nation's

greatest teachers. Museums, cultural centers, local businesses, and religious

institutions are all treasure troves of educational possibilities and skilled

individuals who have plenty to share with young people. Community organ-

izations have a human resources advantage over local schools. Rather than

utilizing only teachers who have been trained and certified as such, commu-

nity organizations can tap the resources that it finds within the neighborhood

itself and discover the individual talents of community members.

WHERE DO FUTURE TEACHERS LEARN? REDEFINING

THE "FIELD" OF EXPERIENCE

Where we place people to learn affects greatly what they learn about teaching, stu-

dents, families, community life, and socio-political influences on education. What

sorts of experiences can we create that allow us to venture outside the school doors?

Which places where we live and which other communities might be most fruitful for

learning? Wherever we ask students to go, the goal is always to offer meaningful

experiences that challenge them to confront uncertainties without pushing them so

far that they may resist learning. We think of these as "experiences near" and "expe-

riences far," both in terms of the distance from one's home and campus and in terms

of the distance from one's cultural and pedagogical expectations. In an example of a

curriculum that stressed "experience near," Gordon (2002) wrote:

Lack of knowledge of the larger context of our students' lives as well as

minimal and superficial communication between teachers and students

from low-income communities have been two of the major stumbling

blocks for effective teaching and learning and, hence, the retention of

both marginalized students and middle-class teachers … [I]f future

teachers do not connect with students and their families on a personal

level prior to becoming professionals and commit to the education of

these youth, they never will.

(Gordon, 2002, p. xvii)

Gordon called for pre-service teachers to engage in a critical dialogue that is enriched by

ethnographic investigations of the context in which they have lived and worked. In

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

Gordon's work with college students of color or those from working-class backgrounds,

there was often a disconnect between their "schooled identity" (Levinson et al ., 1996)

and their lives in the home community. During a course on Minorities in the

Schooling Process, students developed collaborative projects to learn about

educational questions that concerned them, and then spoke with people in the

community where they grew up. For example, a group of Asian-American students

interviewed adults in their home community about the adults' career aspirations in

order to learn more about why Asian-Americans may shy away from becoming teach-

ers. As a result of the project, the students made a stronger commitment to teaching

and to learning more about the historic trajectory of different Asian-American

groups in the U.S. There are many other possibilities for an investigation of educa-

tional issues in a community we think we know well, but which may surprise us when

we ask more challenging questions.

In addition to engaging pre-service teachers in unusual experiences where they

live or go to school, teacher educators can also create experiences in communities far

away. For example, students at Moorehead State University student teach in a south

Texas community (Cooper, Beare and Thorman, 1990); Clark and Flores (1997) take

bilingual preservice teachers to a retreat in Monterrey, Mexico; Suarez (2002) has

TESOL students participate in a summer immersion experience in Mérida,

Venezuela; Friesen; Kang and McDougall (1995) take Canadian teacher education

students for a semester of field experiences in Yaoúnde, Cameroon; and Stachowski

and Mahon (1998) have created Cultural Immersion Projects that place student

teachers on the Navaho Nation and in eight countries around the world.

In a more detailed example, professors at the University of Georgia have led a pro-

fessional development course that is taught in Xalapa, the capital of Veracruz state in

Mexico, since 1999 (McLaughlin et al ., 2002). There are two sessions, one in May

that is primarily for pre-service teachers and one in June that enrolls practicing educators.

In Xalapa, participants live with Mexican families, immerse themselves in the life of

the city, and learn about education in Mexico first-hand.

A typical day during the stay begins with morning-long observations in schools

and communities, after which the participants talk with Mexican teachers about their

practice. In the afternoons the educators learn conversational Spanish and study

Mexican culture in classes at the School for Foreign Students. One of the defining

events of the experience comes when the group visits one of two ranchitos (small

towns) in rural areas south of Xalapa. There, they spend a day in a one-room school

that has 1 teacher and more than 30 students in 6 grade levels. The visitors observe

and converse with students, eat with local families afterward, and exchange gifts of

appreciation. These communities are extremely poor; in one of them, a coffee-picking

area, the campesinos (rural laborers) earn about $4 daily to support an entire family.

During one of the days we visit, the U.S. educators participate in a faena, which is a

work session led by the teacher and parents to upgrade the facilities at the school.

This form of community service reflects a fundamental difference with the U.S. in

terms of how parents define involvement. Where there is frequent illiteracy, as in

these ranchitos, parents rarely help their children with academic homework, but

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338

instead offer their help to build or repair school structures, clean the school and its

grounds, and make decisions about how to spend the small amounts of funding

generated by the teachers. Parents also emphasize the value of hard work and ganas,

which is the desire one has to survive and to complete a task.

The pre-service teachers in the May group keep a dialogue journal that is

exchanged with other students and with the group leader. In the journal entries, they

write about experiences such as the ones just described in the one-room schools.

They focus on their own questions about culture, language, and education.

At the end of the experience the pre-service teachers use their journals to write a

paper titled "Looking Back and Looking Ahead." In it, they describe in detail what

they have learned by living for a time in Mexico, how the experience will influence

their thinking about teaching and being a teacher, and how they might share with

others what they have learned about working with students from different cultural

backgrounds. The writers express a range of emotions and understandings, such as

this excerpt from Kristin (a pseudonym):

Looking Back

I loved learning through the visit to [a one-room school] that rural school

education is such a collective process, a process focused on the whole,

rather than the individual, as in the U.S. … I was intrigued to learn how

the setting of a one-room rural school presents a context for democratic

relationships between students, but moreover the vertical democratic rela-

tionships between [the teacher] and the parents, whose input she obviously

valued so greatly … If I had to come up with two words to describe what

I learned about education, I would use "responsibility" and "collectivity."

Looking Ahead

I know now that I won't just wonder about a student's educational

background, but I will ask specific questions so that I can better

understand where they are coming from (both literally and figuratively)

and know better how to serve them in my classroom … I will talk to those

"beginners" with whom I couldn't really communicate before, so I can

understand their literacy in Spanish and learn if they speak an indigenous

language. I will be more forgiving of restlessness in the classroom because

I know that in Mexico there are windows to see outside and more freedom

to move around and interact with peers in groups … I know that this expe-

rience has inspired me to create democratic relationships with all my stu-

dents and to seek democratic relationships in my work environments.

Kristin's reflections on responsibility and collectivity, which are two necessary com-

ponents of democratic relationships, exemplify a depth and creativity of thought that

we find uncommon in traditional settings at U.S. universities. She considered the

images and ideas that she could take from an intense set of experiences, and

expanded her thinking about democracy to include relationships in the work envi-

ronment. On a more personal level, Lynn (another pseudonym) wrote about family

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

life, social bonds, and her vision of being a teacher:

Looking Back

I've noticed that it doesn't matter in the least where you are as much as

who you're with. The bond that exists between immediate family mem-

bers, as well as the extended family, is remarkable … [F]amily members

remain in close proximity to one another … despite the extreme poverty.

Looking Ahead

In [U.S.] schools, it's not about how many computers there are in your

classroom or how many supplies you have. It's about whether you have a

teacher who loves and cares for all the students … and whether you can

come to know the parents.

Lynn was struck by the chasm between poverty and richness, and believed that

regardless of the circumstances we should focus on strengthening our bonds with

family and students. These life lessons – or, more dramatically, educational epiphanies –

are incredibly difficult to learn in an accustomed place. We learn them by living

through the dissonance and discovery of what we believe during an "experience far."

WHAT DID WE LEARN?

We learned three powerful lessons from our work in these two diverse contexts:

1. In the Chicago study, we learned that pre-service educators can utilize the tech-

niques of action research to work on mutual, specific problems with community

partners. Developing researchable, field-based inquiry questions, and conducting

ethnographic interviews are essential skills for learning about teaching.

2. Coursework at the university must be tailored to incorporate community resources and

experiences that have not been acknowledged by the academy. In the city, university

students explored community connections in online site group conversations and "pre-

sented" their urban school site to the class at the end of the course. They linked topics

of asset-based community development, school reform, partnerships, and views on

teaching in communities with their own experiences in their sites. In Mexico, excerpts

from participants' "Looking Back" and "Looking Ahead" papers portrayed a range

and depth of emotions and understandings expressed by the participants. This sort of

experiential thinking brings to bear a community resource – albeit from far away – that

enables pre-service teachers to construct a more expansive view of teaching.

3. Mentoring can be more innovative and influential if it includes parents, students,

and teachers outside of traditional classrooms, our own communities, and even

our country. For example, after a visit to an alternative school in Chicago our priv-

ileged university students changed their conceptions of teaching and learning –

because they were in a room discussing learning with students who had always

been the "other," but who had something important to teach.

Likewise, going to Mexico to observe a rural school classroom and then talk with the

teacher and students led to a serious examination of what we value and believe. In a

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RE-THINKING BASIS FOR "HIGH QUALITY" TEACHING

340

fundamental sense, the Mexican teacher and children acted as mentors to our

participants.

This sort of learning requires a willingness to step outside, to disregard what is

comfortable. The process is not a dis-engagement, a removal from one's work in U.S.

schools; it is an essential aspect of learning who we are as teachers.

THE COMMUNITY TEACHER: RETHINKING "QUALITY"

McLaughlin and Blank (2004) wrote about a community-as-text approach to learning .

The emphasis on experiential, community-based learning echoes the persistent

demand for authentic teacher education that connects prospective teachers with the

school context and redefines the notion of teacher "quality." As teacher educators,

our goal should be to "help practitioners understand how to study core concepts in

real-world settings and link standards-based competencies to existing community

issues and resources" (McLaughlin and Blank, 2004, p. 34). In terms of teacher

preparation, Peter Murrell (2001) challenges us to examine what we do, where we

work, and whom we work with. Murrell asks: "Given what we know about the com-

munity, how do we define "quality'?" Quality, in this context, refers to teachers who

are "culturally connected with the lives, heritages, and cultural forms of the children

and families in the community" (p. 58). Building an awareness and a sense of com-

mitment to diverse settings in education suggests that prospective teachers need a

map to learn about the communities in which they will take teaching positions – not

just a map of the building in which they will teach. Murrell suggests that community

teacher candidates should have experience working with youth in communities; they

should see themselves as change agents and community teachers. Ideally, a community

teacher has a background similar to those of the students they will teach (p. 59), and

they value local knowledge and community connectedness. For a community teacher,

the community is a primary text in their curriculum.

WORKING WITH "UNLIKELY TEACHERS" IN COMMUNITY SETTINGS

The work that teacher preparation students do in their required courses often does not

reflect what is happening in communities. We would like to explore more ways to

bring schools and teachers into the triangle of partnerships involving higher educa-

tion, communities, and schools. Partnerships with community members suggest new

roles for them, not just as mentors, but also as teacher educators in their own right.

Their involvement in teacher education alters the traditional university structures for

program delivery. Control shifts from the university professor to the multiple men-

tors in schools, community centers, and parent groups. Courses may no longer be

defined in terms of "seat time" or "clock hours," but rather as time spent with young

people, parents, and adult mentors. Such a new view of community as integral to

teacher preparation suggests the blurring of identities and a shared responsibility for

preparing teachers who are interested in beginning their careers in diverse settings

and staying there beyond the first year.

H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

There is much debate in teacher education today about the value of traditional

methods courses and student teaching/practicum experiences. The increase in alternative

certification programs that have truncated or even eliminated these experiences for

candidates forces us to examine the nature of fieldwork and its value for our prospec-

tive teachers. We need to redesign internships, field experiences, and study abroad

programs to truly integrate off-campus and in-class experiences. In this process, it is

vital to focus on the breadth, depth, and scope of the experiences we create.

In the future, we would like to develop better ways to assess what teacher candi-

dates do in classrooms that reflect what they have learned or are learning in commu-

nity experiences. We want to explore how the pedagogy and experiences that we offer

outside school doors can later influence how prospective teachers participate in men-

toring relationships, become acclimated to a new school community as first-year

teachers, and access the resources they need to assist their students in learning.

Emily, a student intern and future community teacher, commented:

Though much of a student's most valuable learning may take place when

led by a figure other than a typical classroom teacher, teachers still

remain the foundation of a child's education. While out-of-school experi-

ences can never replace the traditional schooling methods, they are valu-

able to a student's education in that they expose the students to new ideas

from unlikely teachers.

Emily's image of "unlikely teachers" is quite powerful. By examining and validating

the expertise offered by these unlikely teachers in non-school settings, we will

expand rather than narrow our definition of "high-quality teaching." Learning to

teach is not merely a matter of induction and assimilation, but rather accepting the

challenge to meet students and families where they live. Together with our colleagues

in communities, we can create experiences that help to shape the social and peda-

gogical perspectives of teachers who will remain in the profession as leaders and

innovators.

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H. JAMES MCLAUGHLIN AND GAIL E. BURNAFORD

Becoming a teacher involves a transition from pre-service training into the profession

of teaching. This transition brings about a shift in role orientation and an epistemo-

logical move from knowing about teaching through formal study to knowing how to

teach by confronting the daily challenges of the school and classroom (Feiman-

Nemser, 2000). According to Feiman-Neimser, becoming a teacher requires the

development of a professional identity and the construction of professional practice.

However, for the majority of beginning teachers, also referred to as newly-qualified

teachers (NQTs), this shift is seldom smooth. They experience difficulties beyond

their control that affect their professional performance at the workplace, especially

during their first year of service. Consequently, beginning teachers often have a hard

time determining their success, especially during their first year of teaching. Wolfe

and Smith (1996, citing Feiman-Nemser,1983) and Michael et al. (2002) pointed out

that the first year is critical in determining whether newly-qualified teachers will stay

in the teaching profession and what type of teachers they will become and in shaping

their attitudes, beliefs, and practices.

The first year of teaching, especially places many demands on NQTs and has been

variously described as:

●critical in beginning teachers' decision to make a commitment to teaching and to

remain in the profession (Gold, 1996; Hope, 1999);

●critical in developing novice teachers' confidence in themselves as maturing pro-

fessionals (Weasmer and Woods, 1998);

●a period during which NQTs shape their attitudes, beliefs, and practices (Michael

et al., 2002);

●a ritual bridge that NQTs have to cross to enter the teachers' world (Britzman,

1986; Roy et al ., 1998);

●most challenging, exhilarating, and often most traumatic to beginning teachers

(Cole et al ., 1995; Kottler et al ., 1998);

●trickiest on the NQTs' job (Bartell, 2005); and

●a period during which NQTs face unique problems (Huling-Austin et al ., 1989).

It is during the early years that teachers are most likely to become disillusioned and

leave their initial teaching positions or even the profession (Bartell, 2005). The tran-

sition from pre-service training into the classroom has been described as a period of

chance, a ritual bridge that beginning teachers have to cross to enter the world of

teaching, and the most dramatic transition in beginning teachers' learning to teach

(Britzman, 1986; Morine-Dershimer, 1992; Roy et al., 1998). As Martinez (1994)

noted, stakeholders such as researchers, policy makers, teachers, teacher educators,

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ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

23. THE TRANSITION PROCESS: THE

EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 343–364.

344

and beginning teachers themselves, generally agree that entry into teachers' work is

difficult and, as a result, beginning teachers need special support.

To address the unique challenges beginning teachers experience at the workplace,

to improve their practice, to facilitate a sense of collective responsibility for student

success, and to reduce the loss of promising teachers, we need to rethink beginning

teachers' success during the transition from pre-service education to practice. As

Dixon (1989) concluded, "we see assisting beginners as one of the most productive

ways to ensure that new members of the [teaching] profession will succeed" (p. vii).

This chapter discusses the challenges experienced by beginning teachers during

their transition into the teaching profession and the strategies to facilitate their

success. It is organized into the following seven major parts. Part one examines the

initial experiences of beginning teachers. Part two discusses the challenges of begin-

ning teachers. Part three looks at the pitfalls in the pre-service training programs of

intending teachers. In part four the responses of beginning teachers to frustrations in

the workplace are explored. Part five addresses the needs of beginning teachers. Part

six explores the strategies to facilitate beginning teacher success. It also highlights

the major considerations in the provision of assistance to beginning teachers. The

final part concludes that the key to successful transition of beginning teachers into

the teaching profession lies in the effectiveness of school-university partnerships and

the administrative support at the workplace.

Throughout the chapter, the terms beginning teachers and newly-qualified teachers

(NQTs) will be used interchangeably to refer to those individuals who have not

taught before; novices, usually ones who have just completed training to become

teachers (Huling-Austin et al., 1989; Moran et al., 1999).

INITIAL EXPERIENCES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

In considering how to facilitate smooth transition of beginning teachers from pre-

service training into the teaching profession, it is important to recognize some impor-

tant aspects of beginning teachers' initial experiences in entering the profession.

Initial experiences include perceptions and behaviors regarding teaching, students,

the school environment, and their roles as teachers (Gold, 1996). It is generally

expected that beginning teachers should enter their first year of teaching already

equipped with the following experiences (Reynolds, 1992; Danielson, 1999;

Darling-Hammond et al., 1999):

●some understanding about pedagogy appropriate for the content they are expected

to teach which they acquired during their pre-service education;

●knowledge of the subject matter they are expected to teach;

●knowledge of strategies, techniques, and tools for creating and sustaining a learn-

ing community, and the skills and abilities to employ these strategies;

●the disposition to find out about their students and school, and the ethnographical

skills to do so;

●the disposition to reflect on their own actions and students' responses in order to

improve their teaching and strategies and tools for doing so; and

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

●knowledge about learners and learning, human growth and development, motivation

and behavior, learning theory, learning differences, and cognitive psychology.

Studies have also shown that beginning teachers enter the teaching profession with

numerous experiences. For example, Roy et al., (1998), in a study that explored

principals' conceptions of beginning-teacher competence in Central and South-East

Queensland schools, reported the following conceptions of beginning teacher

competence:

●having a particular type of personality (i.e., self-esteem, 'natural' gifts and talents

they bring to the classroom);

●being subject experts;

●being skilled managers;

●having professional approaches to teaching; and

●having the ability to control the class.

According to Mager (1992), in-service preparation programs are expected to help the

prospective teachers form a positive image of self-as-teachers, to acquire knowledge,

skills, and values appropriate to the work of teaching, and to provide them with expe-

riences in particular contexts through field experiences.

In sum, beginning teachers bring varying backgrounds, motivations, experiences,

expectations for themselves and for students, commitments, and preparation levels to

their initial teaching. Their view of the teaching profession and overall involvement

in it are shaped by their background experiences, motivations, and the school contexts

in which they work.

However, assertions have been made by several researchers and writers who

believe that pre-service training does not prepare intending teachers adequately for

teaching in their classrooms. For example, Huling-Austin (1989) and Klug and

Salzman (1991) have argued that, although pre-service training institutions usually

act as a starting point for the development of teaching skills and abilities for intending

teachers, due to the complexity of the teaching process and the context in which it

occurs, beginning teachers may not initially be fully equipped to contend with the

various, often difficult challenges which arise. The following section examines the

challenges faced by beginning teachers in the workplace.

CHALLENGES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

The literature points out numerous challenges frustrating beginning teachers' transition

into the teaching profession. This part presents the challenges faced by newly-qualified

teachers in the following ten major themes:

●workload;

●professional support;

●reality shock;

●student discipline;

●personal vs. professional demands;

●classroom management;

●isolation;

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TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

346

●students' and parents'demands;

●role expectations; and

●resources.

Workload

Newly-qualified teachers often start with more difficult and heavy workloads than

their veteran colleagues and are expected to perform their duties with the same expert-

ise and commitment as experienced professionals (Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996; Davis

and Bloom, 1998; Danielson, 1999; Moran et al., 1999; Bartell, 2005). Some schools

treat beginning teachers like their experienced colleagues, assigning them the same

number of classes, duty periods, extra-curricular responsibilities, and, most often, the

most challenging or least favored students or subjects for which they have little or no

preparation. According to Cole et al. (1995), the diverse assignments – which require

multiple lesson preparation – and responsibility to teach many particularly challenging

students are a few of the realities with which new teachers are expected to cope. In

addition, they argued, newly-qualified teachers are expected to absorb the details of

curriculum guides and school procedures, volunteer for extra-curricular duties, and

establish themselves in a school community environment that is likely to be totally

unfamiliar to them. Sometimes, NQTs are appointed in settings inherently loaded with

difficulties which place additional demands on the beginners, such as coordinating

extracurricular activities and teaching in more than one subject area (Martinez, 1994).

Overcoming stress that NQTs experience because of heavy workloads and unsym-

pathetic community attitude toward teachers are the usual strains that beginning

teachers have to put up with (Holdaway et al ., 1994).

Professional support

Oftentimes beginning teachers do not get meaningful and adequate professional

support in the workplace from either their veteran colleagues or their principals. As

Napper-Owen and Phillips (1995) noted, beginning teachers, especially those in their

first year of teaching, are often not provided with appropriate help in assuming their

teaching responsibilities. According to Danielson (1999), the lack of support for new

teachers may be attributed to the following major reasons:

●the erroneous beliefs that beginning teachers have learned all they need to know dur-

ing their pre-service education to be successful in their professional assignments in the

workplace and that any failure to deliver in the classroom is due to their own fault and

●the failure of some beginning teachers to seek for the necessary assistance they

may need from veteran teachers or principals because they are afraid such endeavors

might be interpreted as weakness or, worse, incompetence.

According to Feiman-Nemser et al. (1999), the isolation of teachers in their classrooms

and the prevailing norms of autonomy and non-interference make it difficult for

beginning teachers to ask for or receive help.

"Reality shock" ("cultural shock")

Drawing from the literature on beginning teachers, researchers and writers have

learned that as NQTs move from being students of teachers to teachers of students,

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

they often experience "reality shock'or "cultural shock", the state of mind they enter

when they first deal with the demands and challenges of teaching (Gordon and

Maxey, 2000; Moran et al ., citing Koetsier and Wubbels, 1995; Veenman, 1984).

Their newness to the teaching situation and the complexity of their teaching roles

often confront them with daily dilemmas and uncertainties (Cole et al ., 1995; San,

1999). Veenman (1984) described new teacher transition into the classroom as

involving a "reality shock" and anticipated "loneliness of the workplace" (p. 144).

Reality shock may be caused by the NQTs'realizations about the world of teaching,

the lack of preparation for the teaching demands, and the contradictions between

their education perspectives and on-the-job school practices. As Huling-Austin et al .

(1989) noted, teaching is a highly complex series of acts that cannot be learned eas-

ily and cannot be done by formula or recipe. Lawson's (1989) study revealed that

NQTs experienced "reality shock" as they realized that what they learned in their

pre-service teacher education program was different to the reality of the job. One

consequence of reality shock is the "wash-out effect," in which what teachers learned

in their pre-service preparation programs is progressively eroded by school practice

(Smyth, 1995, citing Zeichner and Tabachnick, 1981).

Student discipline

Student discipline has been a frequent challenge for novice teachers. Many beginning

teachers do not know how to handle student discipline problems which may arise

from a variety of sources, such as student absenteeism, lack of motivation, students

responding with off-task behaviors, talking back to the teacher, student anger, or gen-

eral negativity toward learning (Wolf and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996).

Some students are in the habit of challenging NQTs, thus frustrating classroom inter-

actions and creating difficult teaching-learning environments for the novice teachers.

As Kogan (1992) noted, "the reality of the classroom rarely conforms to novices'

expectations or images; instead, most novice teachers confront pupils who have little

academic motivation and interest and a tendency to misbehave" (p. 145). Such

behaviors and attitudes may be totally foreign to the beginners and may convey

mixed messages and a great deal of confusion.

Becoming disciplinarians, especially in a hostile teaching-leaning situation and in

a school culture that does not encourage NQTs to ask for help may be difficult for

newly-qualified teachers and, consequently, they are often frustrated by disruptive

student behaviors that throw their carefully-prepared lessons off course (Cole et al .,

1995). Disillusioned and possessing inadequate classroom procedural knowledge,

NQTs may become increasingly authoritarian and custodial and, consequently, they

may plan instructions designed not to promote learning but to discourage indiscipline

in the classroom.

Personal versus professional demands

Beginning teachers are often challenged to balance their home life and school and

teaching demands, including daily schedules, lesson planning, and assessment of student

work (Wolf and Smith, 1996). This is a big challenge to the beginners, especially

when both types of demands require a substantial time commitment.

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Classroom management

Managing the classroom, including making classroom routines, making decisions

regarding curriculum and instruction, handling students, and balancing academic and

social aspects of the classroom, is a great challenge to beginning teachers (Veenman,

1984; Solomon et al ., 1993; Wolf and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996).

Isolation

Newly-qualified teachers usually suffer from emotional, social, and professional iso-

lation (Gordon and Mexey, 2000; Moran et al ., 1999, citing Dennehy, 1996; Solomon

et al., 1993). They typically work in isolation, with minimal opportunities for pro-

fessional dialogues or collaboration with other teachers in their schools. Bromfield,

Diane, and Burnett (2003) and Tickle (1994), in crediting Hargreaves' (1994) work,

observed that beginning teaching is often marked by feelings of personal and professional

isolation and that many newly-qualified teachers are often left to struggle with the

complex and challenging demands of their first job, completely by themselves. A

study by Stroot et al., (1993) revealed that NQTs studied experienced the problem of

professional isolation as many veteran colleagues did not share their teaching concerns

effectively with them.

Beginning teachers also lack frequent opportunities to observe other teachers

teach, to share professional practices, and to problem-solve and plan with colleagues.

Sometimes they serve in schools characterized by a culture of closed classroom

doors and distant and uninvolved teachers (Davis and Bloom, 1998; Wolf and Smith,

1996). Such a culture creates fear in beginning teachers and frustrates their enthusiasm

for teaching and their vision of success for students.

Students' and parents'demands

Beginning teachers are often overwhelmed and dismayed by the increasing demands

from students, including dealing with students whose learning needs demand special,

individual attention, and parents. As Gary (1998) noted, beginning teaching is the

first time that novice teachers are expected to face the ever-changing demands of

youth and their parents. Whereas many parents are usually supportive and welcom-

ing, some might be concerned about the abilities and competence of newly-qualified

teachers and, as a result, they may treat beginners with disrespect, challenge their

actions and decisions, and make difficult demands.

Role expectations

Newly-qualified teachers are often faced with the challenges associated with confus-

ing role expectations, routines and customs in their new schools. They are usually

unclear about what is expected of them, especially in terms of their involvement in

staff and curricular duties and responsibilities and their evaluation process; they are

left to "figure things out" for themselves (Davis and Bloom, 1998; Gordon and

Maxey, 2000). Further to this, NQTs are often overwhelmed by the job and feel inad-

equately prepared (Solomon et al ., 1993).

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

Resources

Beginning teachers are often forced to put up with ill-equipped classrooms with

inadequate instructional resources and materials. Sometimes they get the worst

resources in their schools and have to struggle to locate and to collect quality materials

on their own initiative (Cole et al ., 1995).

Research findings (e.g., Wolfe and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996;

Moran et al ., 1999; Ganser, 2001) also report consistently that beginning teachers

face the following major challenges:

●time management;

●student assessment;

●negative relationships with teachers, principals, community;

●lack of time (to plan, prepare, carry out administrative duties, and mark);

●establishing positive relationships with students;

●confusion about their relationships with students and the need to establish authority;

●difficulties with students' reactions to both the subject content selected and

instructional strategy;

●discovering and developing teaching personalities and styles;

●difficulties in aligning instructional techniques to the subject content and students'

learning styles;

●perceptions of self; and

●earning the respect of colleague teachers.

Also, Solomon et al . (1993) biographical case studies of first-year teachers to deter-

mine how individual perceptions of the teaching role impacted their professional

development during the first year of teaching, reported three major administrative

problems of the novices: class schedules, class size, and equipment.

It seems that, for many newly-qualified teachers, beginning teaching is a sink-or-swim

experience (Huling-Austin, 1989). An understanding of the challenges of beginning

teachers gives schools and school managers the opportunity to address the difficulties

experienced by the beginners during their transition into the teaching profession.

Many of the challenges faced by beginning teachers are due to shortcomings in the

pre-service training programs. These are explored in the following section.

THOUGHTS ABOUT SHORTCOMINGS IN

PRE-SERVICE TRAINING

Pre-service training institutions, such as colleges and universities, are expected to

equip prospective teachers with the teaching strategies, the methods, the knowledge,

and the skills they need to become effective and productive teachers in their class-

rooms. However, in-service training experiences, including practicum teaching, are

often limited and, as a result, beginning teachers often have varying strengths and

vulnerabilities and their idealistic expectations usually become unrealistic as they are

overwhelmed by difficult and pressing challenges in the workplace. Danielson

(1999) observed that professional knowledge cannot be acquired during university

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TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

350

course work regardless of the quality of that course and that, even after the completion

of pre-service training, beginning teachers do not have adequate experience to manage

a full classroom assignment. Similarly, Davis and Bloom (1998) noted that even the

best teacher training programs do not fully prepare new teachers for the daunting

responsibilities associated with the teaching profession.

Recent writings in teacher education have argued about the apparent shortcomings

in teacher preparation programs. The following are among the weaknesses of teacher

in-service programs (Goodlad, 1984, 1990; San, 1999):

●brief preparation programs;

●unchallenging curricular and general work;

●shortage of time for preparation and for supervisors to provide sufficient professional

help; and

●lack of adequate experienced supervisors.

In many Sub-Saharan countries, the deficiencies in pre-service preparation programs

are even more apparent. For example, Wanzare (2002), in synthesizing the works of

Makau (1995), Sitima (1995), Republic of Kenya (1999), and Menya (1995), cited

the following eight major deficiencies in the pre-service teacher education in Kenya:

●inadequate training period which does not enable the trainees to master the essential

academics and pedagogies;

●overloaded curriculum which is too wide for meaningful mastery of the necessary

academic knowledge and pedagogical skills;

●adoption of the "unit system" in major teaching subjects in university pre-service

education curriculum;

●general low entry requirements for pre-service training, especially at primary

teacher education, as a result of regional disparities;

●a majority of students admitted to pre-service teacher training programs do not

choose education at all, but take teaching as the last and only available option and,

consequently, they have no interest in teaching;

●over-enrolment of students in teacher training institutions, resulting in over-

stretching of physical facilities, near zero individual attention and poor supervision

of teaching;

●the involvement of untrained teacher trainers in teacher education programs, espe-

cially at universities; and

●inadequate teaching/learning facilities.

Because of numerous shortcomings in pre-service training programs, many beginning

teachers may not have benefited a great deal from the pre-service training education.

How do NQTs navigate the storms of beginning teaching? These are explored in the

following section.

RESPONSES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

TO FRUSTRATIONS IN THE WORKPLACE

Because of the complexity of the teaching process and the setting in which it occurs,

and because NQTs may not initially be fully equipped to contend with the various,

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

often difficult challenges and frustrations in the workplace, the confidence of many

beginning teachers dissipates fairly quickly, especially as they are thrown into the

proverbial deep end and challenged to sink or swim (Danielson, 1999).

Consequently, many beginning teachers may react to their frustrations in numerous

ways, for example by:

●adopting teaching styles which they had formerly disapproved of, leaving them

feeling guilty and more frustrated (Ballantyne et al ., 1995);

●developing negative, emotional, physical, attitudinal, and behavioral problems,

such as I-don't-care attitudes and laziness (Wilson and Cameron, 1994; Dussault

et al., 1997; Schmid and Knowles, 1994);

●quitting the teaching profession, leading to the loss of potentially-good teachers

(Feiman-Nemser et al ., 1999, citing Darling-Hammond, 1997; Gordon and

Maxley, 2000; Huling-Austin, 1989, citing Sclechty and Vance, 1983);

●developing survival mentality, a set of restricted teaching methods, and a resistance

to curricular and instructional change that may last throughout their teaching

careers and which, in the long run, may prevent effective instruction from occurring

(Huling-Austin, 1986, 1989; Romatowski et al ., 1989);

●diminishing their commitment to continued teaching (Ryan, 1992);

●developing feelings of disappointment, disillusion, and failure – failing their

students, school administrators, colleague teachers, students' parents, and, often

most painful, themselves (Ryan, 1992; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996); and

●developing feelings of being overwhelmed and uncertain (Feiman-Nemser et al.,

1999).

For many NQTs, the reality of teaching, compounded by the many problems they

experience, often become too demanding and, consequently they choose an alternative

career exit, especially if they do not receive adequate mentoring and supervision

early in the profession and if their professional growth endeavors are not recognized

and rewarded. Figure 23.1 summarizes the challenges faced by beginning teachers,

their responses to the challenges, and the overall results.

351

TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

RESPONSES

OF NQTs

OVERALL

EFFECTS

CHALLENGES

Heavy

workloads

Poor support

Reality shock

Students'

discipline

problems

Managing the

classroom

Isolation

Students' and

parents'

demands

Undefined

role

expectations

Beginning

teachers

Personal vs.

professional

demands

Lack of

resources

• Confused

teaching

styles

• I-don't-care

attitude

• Quitting the

profession

• Survival

mentality

• Reduced

commitment

to teaching

• Reduced

student

participation

in learning

• Reduced

student

Figure 23.1. Challenges faced by beginning teachers, their responses to the challenges,

and the overall results

352

NEEDS OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

To help beginning teachers transfer the benefits of pre-service education into the

classroom for the benefit of students and to know what kind of support beginning

teachers need, it is necessary to identify the needs of beginning teachers. As a review

of the literature will show, NQTs have the following major needs:

●developing classroom management skills (Brock and Grady, 1998);

●learning school routines and procedures (Ganser et al., 1999; Heidkamp and

Shapiro, 1999);

●assessing student performance (Gordon, 1991; Kestner, 1994);

●setting up a classroom for the first time (Brewster and Railsback, 2001);

●connecting theories and teaching methods learned in pre-service training to class-

room practice (Brock and Grady, 1998);

●designing and pacing lessons that are developmentally sound (Gordon, 1991;

Stuart, 2002);

●identifying opportunities for professional development (DePaul, 2000);

●responding effectively to behavior and discipline problems in the classroom

(Brewster and Railsback, 2001);

●motivating students and engaging them in class activities (Gordon, 1991; Kestner,

1994);

●developing organizational and time management skills (Brock and Grady, 1998;

Kestner, 1994); and

●opportunities for orientation to the school system, school curriculum, and school

communities (Reiman and Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).

Furthermore, Rob and Brian (1995), in an exploratory research into the beginning

teacher/mentor pairs in Queensland primary schools, reported the following four

major mentoring functions are required by beginning teachers:

●personal and emotional support – opportunity to have someone to talk to and need

to feel comfortable in asking for advice and assistance;

●task-related assistance and advice – advice, ideas, resources, information and

practical help regarding school routines, covering the required content, assessing

and reporting student progress and managing multiple demands;

●problem-related assistance and advice – having someone with whom to discuss

problems and explore possible solutions, e.g., classroom behavior problems,

learner needs; and

●critical reflection and feedback on practice – guided reflection and formal feed-

back regarding their professional practice.

What kind of strategies are needed to facilitate beginning teachers'transition into the

teaching profession? These are explored in the following section.

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS: A CASE FOR INDUCTION

In view of the beginning teachers'different professional needs and the characteristics

of their early professional development and, as an effective response to the problems

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

of beginning teachers, induction programs should be made available to meet beginning

teachers' needs during the initial years of teaching. As Michael et al. (2002) noted,

newly-qualified teachers need to be well-prepared before taking on the responsibilities

of the classroom and induction should present a bridging experience into full profes-

sional teacher status and practitioner capacity. Huling-Austin et al. (1989) observed

that NQTs need to be nurtured, helped, and assisted so that the goal of improved

teaching performance might be attained. A review of the literature regarding teacher

education indicates that the kind of support most meaningful and beneficial to begin-

ning teachers takes place within the school setting where immediacy and relevance

are taken into account and where, through day-to-day experience, new teachers have

most opportunities to learn about what it means to teach and to be a teacher; and that

individual schools are expected to assume primary responsibility for induction and

renewal of their new teachers (Cole et al ., 1995). Support for newly-qualified teach-

ers within schools is likely to come from a variety of people for a variety of needs. In

the context of teacher education, the term induction, as explained by Huling-Austin

et al. (1989), means "a transition period in teacher education between pre-service

preparation and continuing professional development, during which assistance may

be provided and/assessment be applied to beginning teachers" (p. 3). According to

Zewelanji and Leslie (1999), Talbert et al., (1992, citing Camp, 1988), induction is:

●a way of introducing beginning teachers to the teaching profession;

●a helping mechanism for beginning teachers;

●a formal program of systematic and sustained assistance provided to beginning

teachers by professionals specifically assigned that responsibility; and

●a broad process by which novice teachers become professionals.

Moran et al . (1999, citing Dennehy, 1996) indicated that induction is a crucial, form-

ative phase in teacher education development during which practices and attitudes

are formed and consolidated and that no period is more important for the develop-

ment of teachers than the initial induction into the teaching profession.

Furthermore, Varah et al ., (1986) explained that the major purposes of induction

are to help beginning teachers develop security and confidence that will improve

their teaching, to encourage them to remain in the profession, and to eliminate the

isolation they might experience and that, on a broader scale, the induction experience

may be viewed as an effort to improve the teaching profession by retaining the most

effective teachers and, ultimately, to improve the quality of education in the schools.

Therefore, induction includes offering professional assistance to newly-qualified

teachers during their transition from pre-service training into the teaching profession

and includes helping them to form positive attitudes and practices toward the profes-

sion, to develop security and confidence in teaching, to understand their duties and

responsibilities, and to encourage them to remain in the profession. Above all, the

process of induction improves the quality of teaching in schools specifically, by

ensuring that they receive the benefits of well-trained and highly-motivated teachers,

and the quality of education in general.

Indeed, a number of scholars have recognized the complexity of the induction

process as a way of introducing NQTs to the teaching profession. For example,

353

TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

354

Covert et al . (1991), Talbert et al . (1992), and Huling-Austin (1989) asserted that

induction is a complex activity with many different possible programs that might be

applied; that the programs are as diverse as the agencies that initiate and provide

them; that the purposes vary across programs; and that the most prevalent kind of

induction program is some form of mentoring in which a more experienced teacher

provides support for the beginning teacher in a variety of ways. Talbert et al. (1992)

and Schaffer et al . (1992) explained that the process of induction begins when the

teacher signs the work contract and ends sometime in the future when the teacher

becomes established in the profession; that the time of induction is a transitional

period when the beginning teacher moves from being a student to being a teacher;

and that there does not seem to be general agreement on a specific model or models

that the majority of school systems should implement. According to Talbert et al., in

crediting Huling-Austin's (1990) work, teacher education is often described as a con-

tinuum extending from pre-service through induction to on-going in-service.

The following strategies may be employed to facilitate the success of beginning

teachers in the workplace as part of their induction programs:

●providing adequate information about school policies, procedures, and expecta-

tions (Wilkinson, 1997);

●limiting teaching responsibilities of beginning teachers by providing them with

less difficult assignments, assigning them fewer duties than their more experi-

enced colleagues, and assigning them teaching responsibilities preferably in areas

in which they have student teaching experience (Davis and Bloom, 1998; Rebore,

1995, citing James et al ., 1994; Weasmer and Woods, 1998);

●providing them with curriculum guidance and support, including: (a) instructional

materials and equipment; (b) data about academic achievement; (c) information about

expected teaching standards, participation in staff and extra-curricular activities, and

in every other aspect of the job; (d) information about what kind of support to expect

and not to expect; and (e) information about evaluation processes and where they

stand in that process (Davis and Bloom, 1998; Weasmer and Woods, 1998);

●providing them with systematic orientation (a) through organized and appropriate

orientation programs that cover school curricular, policies, procedures, relevant

Ministry of Education or school district matters; (b) through specialized instruc-

tion with respect to their integration into the school professional learning com-

munity; and (c) by creating opportunities for them to be part of the collegial

relationship in the school (Davis and Bloom, 1998);

●assigning them mentors from among their more experienced colleagues to take

charge of their welfare, to keep track of their progress, and to provide assistance

and ideas (Hargreaves, 1994, cited in Tickle, 1994; Rebore, 1995, citing James,

et al., 1994; Weasmer and Woods, 1998; Wilkinson, 1997; Wolf and Smith, 1996);

●helping them to make difficult decisions (Wilkinson, 1997);

●supporting their ongoing professional growth by: (a) helping them to identify the

most appropriate and productive staff development opportunities that are responsive

to their classroom teaching needs and (b) including them when designing profes-

sional development plans (Wilkinson, 1997; Davis and Bloom, 1998);

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

●providing them with an opportunity to observe other teachers teach and to discuss

with them and to communicate with other newly-qualified colleagues to enlarge

their professional network (Wolf and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996);

●creating an inviting culture within the school for welcoming and supporting

beginning teachers (Wolf and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996);

●suggesting that new teachers record daily experiences in personal journals (Wolf

and Smith, 1996; Zepeda and Ponticell, 1996; and

●introducing beginning teachers to the external community to acquaint them with

the background concerning the socio-economic situations of the community and

other non-school factors contributing to learning (Wolf and Smith, 1996; Zepeda

and Ponticell, 1996; Davis and Bloom, 1998).

Overall, as suggested by Gold (1996) and Wilkinson (1997), beginning teachers

should be provided with the following two major types of support:

●instructional-related support, which includes assisting them with the knowledge,

skills, and teaching-learning strategies for their success in the classroom and

●psychological support or some form of therapeutic guidance aimed at building

their sense of self and ability to handle stress.

To sum up, schools must provide NQTs with continuing on-site professional devel-

opment and must ensure that the beginning teachers have access to help on short

notice as and when needed (Moore and Kardos, 2002). The induction experiences

offered to newly-qualified teachers should provide them with the following major

benefits and, thus, facilitate their smooth transition from pre-service education into

the classrooms (Odell, 1986; Loucks,1993; Ballantyne et al ., 1995; Danielson, 1999;

Feiman-Nemser et al ., 1999; Hope, 1999; Zewelanji and Leslie, 1999; Brewster and

Railsback, 2001; Scott, 2001):

●enable them to have fewer discipline problems;

●enable them to develop a clear sense of expectations for school;

●facilitate their smooth assimilation into the school learning community;

●enable them to become less apprehensive about seeking help from peers;

●facilitate their feeling of acceptance;

●enable them to develop a sense of success;

●enable them to become effective teachers as well as reduce the stress and anxiety

associated with multiple new professional demands;

●help them to develop "best" practices, to move quickly from concerns about man-

agement and control to concerns about instruction, and to become learners

throughout their teaching careers;

●promote their retention in the teaching profession;

●facilitate their quality of teaching; and

●promote their professional skills and confidence.

Furthermore, in a study aimed at providing induction assistance to beginning physical

education teachers and investigating the impact of the assistance on teachers in the

U. S., Napper-Owen and Phillips (1995) reported that continued induction assistance:

●had a positive impact on first-year teachers;

●offered the opportunity to receive regular feedback and support;

355

TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

356

●encouraged accountability to the knowledge attained in the teacher preparation

program; and

●made teachers more reflective and analytical about their teaching.

Above all, successful support programs for beginning teachers also "produce happier

and more effective teachers, which benefits students and influences the overall work-

place and the community it serves" (Gary, 1998, p. 12).

MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS IN THE

PROVISION OF ASSISTANCE TO BEGINNING TEACHERS

To provide effective assistance to beginning teachers, several factors must be consid-

ered. These are explored in this section in five major themes:

●Context in which teachers work;

●needs of NQTs;

●learning to teach is a continuous process;

●program goal and support personnel; and;

●role of NQTs in their induction.

Context in which teachers work

According to Ishler and Edelfelt (1989), the term context, as relates to teacher edu-

cation, includes all the factors that compose the environment and the circumstances

in which teachers work, such as:

●type and number of students;

●teaching assignments;

●size and nature of the teaching staff;

●physical space;

●socio-psychological climate;

●support staff available; and

●quality of school leadership.

Research findings regarding first-year teachers'perceptions of their workplace have

indicated the following factors affecting novices' teaching:

●the presence or absence of teaching colleagues;

●the scheduling of classes;

●the community environment; and

●the students.

(Smyth, 1995)

These findings indicate that teachers' workplace contexts are critical in shaping

NQTs' beliefs about assigned duties and responsibilities as well as overall teaching

performance.

Needs of NQTs

Teacher induction would be much easier if the needs of beginning teachers are iden-

tified and defined. Feiman-Nemser et al. (1999), Odell (1989), and Blake and Hill

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

(1995) asserted that a case must be made for beginning teacher assistance program in

terms of the needs of new teachers and that induction is largely dependent on begin-

ning teachers themselves identifying their own needs. Danin and Bacon (1999) and

Gordon (1991) suggested that program planners for beginning teacher support ask

new teachers to identify areas to cover in orientation and induction program meetings

to increase their "buy-in" for the programs and to ensure that program offerings are

relevant to the participating teachers. According to Feiman-Nemser et al. (1999),

beginning teachers need professional development connected to the daily work of

students, related to the teaching and learning of subject matter, organized around real

problems of practice, and sustained over time by conversation and coaching.

Learning to teach is a continuous process

Learning to teach is a lifelong process that involves new learning as one comes in

contact with each new student and shares ideas, problems, and solutions with colleagues

(Bartell, 2005). Consequently, beginning teachers, even those with good pre-service

preparation, are still learning to teach. Therefore, for beginning teachers to improve

the quality of teaching and learning, induction programs must move beyond a general

recognition that new teachers need support to more powerful conceptions of induc-

tion as part of a broader system of professional development and accountability

(Feiman-Nemser et al ., 1999).

Program goal and support personnel

It is important to consider establishing the program goal, evaluating the program, and

selecting, training, and assigning responsibilities to program support personnel

(Odell, 1989).

ROLE OF NQTS IN THEIR INDUCTION

It is important to consider the role played by the beginning teachers themselves in

facilitating their smooth transition into the classrooms. The following should be

among the major undertakings by beginning teachers toward this end (Kottler et al.,

1998; Bromfield et al ., 2003; Bartell, 2005):

●learn their ways around (i.e., orient themselves as quickly as possible and as com-

prehensively as they can);

●make friends with the school secretaries, the people who control access to admin-

istration, who are the best connected to all facets of the schools' operations, and

who know the most efficient ways to get things done and the most important gossips;

●learn about school policies, rules and regulations – from Teachers' Handbooks (if

there are any) to find out what is really expected of them;

●get involved in school activities (including extra-curricular activities);

●network with professionals, including counselors, special education experts,

nurses, librarians, consultants, and others who keep the schools running;

●invite their principals (or other internal evaluators) to their classrooms at times

when they have something special manned that would be of interest;

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TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

358

●form positive relationships with and seek professional help from colleagues,

including those from other schools and school systems;

●reflect on their own practice by evaluating its effectiveness and carefully consid-

ering what they might do differently, by asking others (e.g., teachers, parents,

supervisors, children) to give them feedback, and by being involved in

action/teacher research; and

●take time to nurture and to develop their knowledge, skills, and abilities to become

expert at what they do.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS: THE WAY FORWARD?

To summarize, the central theme presented in this chapter is that, whereas most

teachers in pre-service training begin their education programs with confidence,

optimism, and a strong calling to the teaching profession and expect to succeed in the

workplace, and whereas many beginning teachers enter the teaching profession with

" their students' success and high enthusiasm to become part of the teaching force,

newly-qualified teachers' dreams, hopes, aspirations, and optimism often turn to

disappointments, discouragement, disillusionment, and frustration as they go

through their transition from pre-service into the teaching profession. What they

often face are bureaucratic impediments associated with poor relationships with and

lack of support from their veteran colleagues and administrators, disrespectful and

undisciplined students, and unsympathetic community attitudes toward teachers.

They soon discover that the workplace is often not what they had anticipated during

their pre-service education.

Chances are that beginning teachers will start to isolate themselves further from

their veteran colleagues, to avoid staffroom contacts, to limit their visits to school

administrators, and to develop unproductive survival tactics. Some newly-qualified

teachers may even abandon the teaching profession in search of calmer, more sheltered,

and welcoming professional opportunities elsewhere. It appears prudent to view

beginning teaching as a most challenging, exhilarating, and often most traumatic

experience for newly-qualified teachers. Consequently, assistance and support during

this initial phase of the teaching profession is crucial in bridging the gap between

being a student in a professional training institution and being a functional practitioner

in the real world of teaching. Effective induction programs can:

●enhance beginning teachers' skills and knowledge;

●provide them with positive professional experiences;

●contribute to their improved standards of teaching; and

●improve their retention rates.

Induction programs for beginning teachers are critically important both in the initial

and in long-term teacher effectiveness and professional growth.

The key to smooth transition of newly-qualified teachers from pre-service training

into the teaching profession lies in the effectiveness of school-university/college

partnerships in which problems of school life form the basis for in-service training.

The administrative support, especially from school principals can also help beginning

ZACHARIAH O. WANZARE

teachers survive and thrive through this difficult and often lonely period. Above all,

newly-qualified teachers themselves must endeavor to meet the challenges of beginning

teaching with perseverance, courage, and hard work.

In considering the smooth transition of newly-qualified teachers into the teaching

profession, the following two questions need to be addressed. Should induction pro-

grams for newly-qualified teachers be mandatory and what kind of school culture

would facilitate smooth transition of beginning teachers into the teaching profession

and encourage them to seek professional help?

IMPLICATIONS

The proposed strategies for assisting NQTs during their transition into the classroom

have several implications for practice and for future research.

Practice

Administrative support. Strong and supportive school leadership and vision must be

provided to meet the challenges of newly-qualified teachers. School principals, espe-

cially must recognize the need to facilitate school-based beginning teacher support

programs. Toward this end, school principals need to be alerted to their own biases

and to become aware of alternative ways of conceiving beginning-teacher compe-

tence and ways of approaching the assessment of the competence of beginning teachers.

As Napper-Owen and Phillips (1995) recommended, school administrators need to

take an active role in the induction of NQTs because the administrators will most

likely be involved in writing formal appraisal reports on the novices. Furthermore,

they argued, frequent classroom visitations may help alleviate feelings of isolation

and frustration in the beginners and facilitate effective teacher behavior. According to

Napper-Owen and Phillips, NQTs should be provided with continued professional

support even after their induction period has ended to reinforce and to perpetuate

skills and behaviors learned during the induction years.

Pre-service-induction-in-service connections. There is a need for beginning teacher

support programs to be integrated with pre-service education and in-service staff

development to form a continuum of training experiences for teachers. As Huling-

Austin (1990) noted, teacher education is often described as a continuum extending

from pre-service through induction into teaching to ongoing in-service and career-

long development. According to Tickle (2000), "a continuum, or bridge, is necessary

in the professional development of teachers, linking initial training, entry into full-time

teaching, and subsequent long-term learning" (p. 1).

Research

The research agenda regarding beginning teacher assistance should include the

following major areas:

Institutional conditions and culture. An investigation is needed into school condi-

tions and culture that would facilitate effective school-based induction programs for

beginning teachers and encourage beginning teachers to seek for professional help.

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TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

360

Data could be gleaned from teachers, principals, and senior government education

officers.

Induction practices. Observational studies regarding beginning teacher induction

practices across schools are also needed. The questions that should be addressed are:

What are the characteristics of effective induction practices and are there identifiable

induction practices that are suitable for facilitating beginning teacher transfer into the

classroom? Such studies may provide a more critical perspective regarding the

impact induction has in shaping the novices'teaching performance.

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Bartell, C. A. (2005) Cultivating High-Quality Teaching through Induction and Mentoring. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Blake, D. and Hill, D. (1995) The Newly-Qualified Teacher in School. Research Papers in Education, vol.

10, 3, pp. 309–339.

Brewster, C. and Railsback, J. (2001) Supporting Beginning Teachers: How Administrators Can Help New

Teachers Succeed. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

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Brock, B. L. and Grady, M. L. (1998) Beginning Teacher Induction Programs: The Role of the Principal.

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TRANSITION PROCESS: EARLY YEARS OF BEING A TEACHER

BACKGROUND

The preparation of teachers and current teacher education programs according to

Tripp (1994) has not stood up well to public scrutiny. He says that many people,

particularly teachers, administrators, and governments, believe that teacher education

practices are an inadequate preparation for teaching. Teacher education in many tertiary

institutions throughout the world is under pressure (Korthagen and Kessels, 1999)

and it has evolved to the point where "the professional school's prevailing conception

of professional knowledge may not match well with the actual competencies required

of practitioners in the field" (Schön, 1987, p. 10).

This mismatch discussed by Schön (1987) may in reality reflect the ambiguous

and complex nature of teaching as it involves the acquisition of a wide range of skills.

Teaching requires judgment, appropriate action and the capacity to reflect and revise

decisions on the basis of observations and insight. Learning to teach means gaining

theoretical and practical knowledge along with the development of interpersonal

skills (Furlong and Maynard, 1995). The associated problems of conventional teacher

education programs have been identified by Louden (1993) as collisions between

university-based theory and school-based practice. He lists hit-and-run supervision

by university staff who have no connection with the student's development as a

teacher, and sink-or-swim supervision by cooperating teachers who are unwilling (or

unable) to help students bridge the gaps in their knowledge between theory and practice.

The development of teaching skills is complicated by the fact that often the knowl-

edge that may be most critical for an individual beginning teacher is identified during

preservice teaching experiences, but is seldom fully developed in subsequent preser-

vice practicums (Barnes, 1989). Fullan (1993) says that there is a widely held

misconception that teaching is not all that difficult. As a result of this misconception,

it is a common belief that education faculties attract only the students on the lower

end of the academic scale (Sarason, 1993).

The challenge, therefore, for teacher educators, is to create programs that will

prepare the beginning teacher for the intricacies of life in the classroom. The trans-

formation of students to teachers is a combination of complex events, which needs to

take place in both universities and schools. Hannan (1995) argues that the teaching

profession requires highly trained teachers at degree standard who have had such a

balanced training.

Like most providers of pre-service teacher education in Australia, the Faculty of

Education at the University of Wollongong, has been under constant pressure to

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24. THE KNOWLEDGE BUILDING COMMUNITY

PROGRAM: A PARTNERSHIP FOR PROGRESS IN

TEACHER EDUCATION

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 365–380.

366

ensure that its courses meet the needs of both its students and the teaching profession.

Despite this pressure there is both anecdotal and empirical evidence, which, indicates

that some Wollongong graduates have not been satisfied with their preparation for

teaching (Grant 1994). Other evidence suggests that a significant proportion of them

arrive at schools after graduation very much unaware of how school and classroom

cultures operate, are unable to see the relationships between what they have studied

in the courses they've completed, and how it should be translated into effective class-

room practice. (Armour and Booth, 1999).

These trends are not unique to the University of Wollongong. The major employ-

ing authority of teachers in NSW the Department of Education and Training (DET),

has had a long-standing concern at the number of teacher education graduates in gen-

eral (not just Wollongong's) who do not know how to solve the kinds of problems

which they confront on appointment to schools, and that as the main employing

authority, it was looking for ways to reduce the systemic cost, in terms of financial

cost of DET sponsored "induction" programs, as well as costs in time and personal

stress, of the 'induction period' that many newly graduated teachers seemed to need

(NSW, Department of Education & Training, Training and Development Directorate,

2000).

An increasing number of overseas researchers have found that teacher education

courses are at best problematic, at worst counter productive. Fullan (1991) for example

claims that many teacher education courses in North America tend to lack an "overall

coherence" (Fullan, 1991, p. 291); while others argue that the purposes of many of

the courses and subjects that pre-service teachers undertake are complex and hazy

(Lanier and Little, 1986; Floden et al ., 1989; Kennedy, 1990).

The teaching profession continues to grapple with a codified body of knowledge

to base preservice teacher education programs upon (Waghorn and Stevens, 1996).

There are problems with the traditional models of teacher education, fragmentation

in content, the practicum and the ongoing failure to address the needs of newly grad-

uated beginning teachers. School-based teachers are being constantly faced with

broader and more diverse responsibilities; as such their accountability increases

(Williams, 1995; McFadden and Hastings, 1997). Smith and Weaver (1998) identi-

fied the following factors as being responsible for pressure on the education sector

and therefore adding further challenges to conventional teacher education models:

… changes in the structure and governance of schools, changing expec-

tations of education and schooling by various elements of the middle

class, the impact of communication technologies and an ageing teacher

and teacher education staff facing monumental cultural shifts.

(Smith and Weaver, 1998, p. 32)

The common factor defined is that: preservice teacher education would improve if

there were more school-based experiences offered to student teachers. However, the

trend at present in Australia in all spheres of the public sector sees policies and

practices being driven by economic messages to be more "efficient, effective and

economic" (Sachs and Groundwater-Smith, 1999). What this means is that any

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

reform to teacher education will derive from the teacher education providers and the

profession itself, not necessarily the federal government. Despite the rhetoric and

concerns about teacher education there appears to be a reluctance to invest more in

the education of preservice teachers. This hesitation could stem from the belief that

teaching is not difficult (Fullan, 1993).

Paradoxically, teacher education is under the glare of government attention and 1998

saw the release of several final reports looking at teacher education practice. The report

of the National Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher Education Project entitled:

"Preparing a Profession", was published. This report stated that a way to work towards

common goals, outcomes and standards for initial teacher education was necessary.

The second report released in 1998 was The Report of the Review into Higher

Education Financing and Policy (the West Report). This second report titled "Learning

for Life" looked into the financing of universities. While not specifically referring to

teacher education, Sachs and Groundwater-Smith (1999) believe that the tenor of the

report stated the need for universities to be more cost efficient and competitive.

The challenge is now to learn to do things differently. Universities will need to

review continuously the way in which they go about their business. They will need to

be attending more closely than ever before the needs of their various clients, and be

more willing and able to respond quickly and flexibly to their diverse and changing

needs. (West, 1998, p. 67)

The third report of 1998 was the Senate Inquiry into the Status of the Teaching

Profession, entitled "A Class Act". This report was supportive of the teaching profes-

sion and recognised the need to raise its status. However, particular attention and

criticism was levied at initial teacher education programs. The report commented that

there were many programs that were of poor quality, which were inappropriate and

inadequate in preparing preservice teachers for the profession. In particular it was

stated that, "the most trenchant criticism to teacher training related to its practical

component" (A Class Act , p. 183).

The three reports mentioned above all point to the need for change in teacher edu-

cation. These reports were then superseded by further reports in 1999 and 2000 thus

raising to twenty the total of reports and reviews into teacher education since 1980.

In the 1999 report of the Ministerial Advisory Council on the Quality of Teaching

(MACQT), "Identifying the Challenges: Initial and Continuing Teacher Education

for the 21st Century", many of these reports along with their accompanying recom-

mendations appeared. However, another review, "Quality Matters", prepared by

Gregor Ramsey (2000) states that the impact of these reports and the 400 recom-

mendations that accompanied them over the last 20 years was minimal.

Ramsey was appointed to address the following four issues:

●the quality of teachers and teaching;

●the implications of technology for pedagogy;

●behaviour management in schools and classrooms; and

●the practicum and the professional experience of teachers.

These issues were selected because they succinctly covered the main areas of concern

in teaching and teacher education in NSW in 1999–2000. The first point deals with

367

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368

the desire by teachers to have their work better understood and more highly valued by

the community. The second issue relates to all the new technologies that are being

introduced into the classroom and whether they are being effectively integrated into

the curriculum. The third issue addresses parents who want to know that teachers are

well prepared to manage the distractions and various behaviours that from time-to-time

prevent learning from taking place. However, it is point four that has particular

relevance for this review of literature. It would appear that once again the dominant

issue of concern in teacher education is the practical component currently offered to

preservice teachers.

I am convinced that the quality of professional practice in classrooms,

government and non-government schools and other educational settings,

will be improved by reconnecting universities and schools in initial and

continuing teacher education and by strengthening teacher professional-

ism. Unless new approaches are developed in a number of important

areas, my belief is that like the twenty previous reviews of teacher edu-

cation over the same number of years, little will happen as a result of this

Review and good ideas will languish.

(Ramsey, 2000, p. 3)

Ramsey (2000) stated that if change to teacher education was going to be effective

then it must involve a partnership or reconnection between universities and schools.

He stated that these reforms could not be achieved in isolation and that cooperation

was needed from the entire school community. This community would include

Universities, the Department of Education and Training (DET), government and non-

government schools.

At present in NSW there are several Faculties of Education at different universities

trialing or implementing alternative models for the delivery of teacher education.

These models include internships, on-line delivery, and establishing partnerships

between universities and schools. Some of these universities include Charles Sturt

University, Australian Catholic University, University of Technology Sydney and the

University of Wollongong.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE KBC PROGRAM

Inevitably reviews such as those listed above precipitate pressure for programmatic

and structural change. Like other pre-service teacher education providers in

Australia, over the last decade or so, Wollongong seems to have been engaged in a

continual round of such change. For example over the last decade, Wollongong has

either experimented with and/or implemented changes to:

●the number of courses in the program,

●the content, timing, and placement of these courses in the program;

●the deployment and mix of academic and non-academic staff across these courses;

●the placement and nature of practicum experiences within the program;

●the size and distribution of the credit point values of different courses; and

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

●changes in the nature of assessment tasks, (including a number of versions of

portfolio assessment).

In the last decade, Wollongong has also experimented with and/or implemented:

●team teaching;

●redesigning the nature and content of tutorials and mass lectures;

●costly investment in I.T. and on-line teaching;

●the establishment of a university-wide department for the improve-

ment of university teaching;

●substantial financial prizes for "excellence in teaching";

●competitive seeding funds for "innovative teaching initiatives";

●formal annual assessment of academic teaching (which is linked to

promotion);

●peer-mentoring of academics; and

●preparation of hortatory "mission-statements" at "planning days"

and "staff retreats".

(Cambourne et al ., 2002b, p. 2)

These attempts at change have at best been only moderately successful in terms of

bringing about any significant positive changes in Wollongong's graduates' overall

perceptions of their pre-service preparation. Nor has the major employing authority

indicated that the need for its expensive induction programs has been reduced.

Given this state of affairs, Wollongong's Faculty of Education decided to explore,

design, trial, and evaluate alternate models of pre-service teacher education. In late

1997, a small group initiated an informal, but searching series of discussions within

the Education Faculty at the University of Wollongong. The outcomes of these dis-

cussions are summarised thus:

The rapidity, at which socio-political change was impacting on all levels of the

education system, meant that as teacher educators, we faced a "double whammy".

Not only was it becoming obvious that schools, more than ever, would need increasing

numbers of teachers who were both knowledgeable "thinkers" and highly flexible

"doers", but it would be our responsibility to lay the foundations for their life-long

professional growth and development.

Like most pre-service teacher education providers we had both anecdotal and

empirical evidence which indicated that many of our graduates arrived at schools

after graduation very much unaware of how school and classroom cultures operated,

were unable to see the relationships between what they had studied in the courses

they'd completed, and how it should be translated into effective classroom practice

(Grant, 1994).

We were also aware that the system which employed most of our (& other

providers') graduates (The NSW DET), had a long-standing concern that teacher

education graduates in general did not know how to solve the kinds of problems

which would confront them on appointment to schools, and that as the main employing

authority, they were looking for ways to reduce the cost, both in terms of time and

personal stress, of the 'induction period' that many newly graduated teachers seemed

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370

to need. (Armour and Booth, 1999). That our program, after several long, drawn-out

"restructurings", was at best an eclectic mix of key features of what Reid and

O'Donoghue refer to as the "traditional dominant models". (Reid and O'Donoghue,

2001) This means it was based on a strong underpinning of basic, "non-negotiable skills

and knowledge", to which we'd added layers of a "teacher-as-skilled artisan" ethos, and

wrapped it all in the mantle of (so-called) "standards of professional competency".

Despite this our graduates didn't seem to change in ways that were commensurate

with the constantly changing needs of the profession and/or the systems that

employed them. We therefore needed to explore, design, trial, and evaluate alternate

models of pre-service teacher education.

Given this rationale, the faculty supported a proposal to design a research project,

which would investigate, as a pilot, an alternative approach to initial teacher educa-

tion through:

●implementation and evaluation of an inquiry and problem-solving

approach such as that used in medicine and the health sciences; and

●greater integration of the practical field-based component of the

teacher education program with the theoretical.

(Ref to ESDF/Challenge Grant proposals submitted 1997)

This project was informed by a wide-ranging review of relevant literature (Kiggins,

1998). As a consequence of this review we concluded that we needed to begin a

process of challenging, and subsequently changing, the traditional paradigm of pre-

service teacher education to which we'd been wedded for as long as we cared to

remember. We decided that given the complexity of effecting such change, given our

particular University/Faculty socio-political context, our best chance for starting and

maintaining such a shift would be to design a project which would produce at least

the following changes:

●a shift in the mode of program delivery from the traditional 'campus-based-lec-

ture-tutorial' mode to a 'problem based-learning-within-a-school-site' mode;

●a shift from the traditional clinical supervision model of practice teaching to a

problem-based- action-research-mentoring model that brought the relationship

between the specialised knowledge in education courses and the nature and cul-

ture of schools and how they "do business", closer together; and

●a shift in the traditional roles and responsibilities of the major stake holding

groups in teacher development, namely, the professional employing authorities,

(e.g. the NSW DET, local non-government school systems), the university, local

schools, and the Teacher's Unions (NSWTF), so that a new form of 'School-based

Learning" might be developed.

It was argued that if we set these three processes in motion, an important by-product

would be the opportunity to identify and explore the logistical, cultural, and political

barriers to effecting change in:

the teaching/learning culture of undergraduate teacher education (in our

context); and the traditional mindset and culture associated with

practice-teaching/the practicum, (in our context).

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

With the above parameters agreed upon a further 2 years of formal and informal

meetings with the major stake-holding groups were held. These groups included

senior management within the NSW DET Directorates, local superintendents,

principals, whole-school staffs, individual teachers, faculty committees and diverse

university power brokers, and teacher unions. In these two years different formal

committees, working parties, reference groups, met, negotiated, and discussed, it has

been estimated that these meetings totaled between 1200 and 1500 hours.

By the beginning of the 1999 academic year a pilot program had been designed.

There were two caveats to this design:

1. It was agreed that we would begin with a small sub-group comprising approxi-

mately 10% of the new intake, to a maximum of 24 students.

2. The KBC model would operate only in those sessions when practice teaching was

scheduled, (Session 1 in first and second year, Session 2 in third year). This meant

that the 10% of students who were admitted to participate in the KBC version of

the program would be engaged in this form of pre-service professional training for

approximately half their total program. For the other half they would join their

mainstream peers and engage in the traditional "lecturetutorial formal exami-

nation" form of program delivery.

THE KBC DESIGN

The agreed upon model would investigate, as a pilot, an alternative approach to ini-

tial teacher education through:

… implementation and evaluation of an inquiry and problem-solving

approach such as that used in medicine and the health sciences; and a

greater integration of the practical field-based component of the teacher

education program with the theoretical.

(Cambourne et al ., 2002a, p. 2)

Based on this premise the Faculty of Education at the UOW, in partnership with the

NSW Department of Education and Training and the New South Wales Teachers'

Federation developed the KBC Project. Its design was to explore a number of issues

that are of critical importance to models of teacher education in NSW (Ramsey,

2000. p. 57). The KBC is significant because its design offers students the chance to

work and learn in a context-specific environment. Cambourne (2000) states that:

… it is possible to reorganise the knowledge bases of undergraduate

teacher education subjects so that they are more integrated with school and

classroom culture, and therefore more relevant, more meaningful, better

appreciated by student teachers, with less duplication across subject areas.

(Cambourne, in Ramsey, 2000, p. 57)

This approach as identified by Cambourne is consistent with the directions identified

throughout the Ramsey Report (2000) as necessary to improve the quality of initial

teacher education. The KBC may produce beginning teachers who are confident and

have the ability to tackle problem solving and collaboration. The KBC process relies

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THE KNOWLEDGE BUILDING COMMUNITY PROGRAM

372

on group and teamwork skills, qualities that will not go unnoticed in the school

environment. With the multiplicity of demands that are being placed on teachers

today the ability to be an effective member of a team must surely be seen as an added

bonus by an employer.

Although a KBC model had been explored for students in schools it had not yet

been explored in teacher education. For the purpose of this project the definition of a

KBC proposed by Hewitt et al . (1995) was adopted. They proposed:

A Knowledge Building Community is a group of individuals dedicated to

sharing and advancing the knowledge of the collective. What is defining

about a Knowledge Building Community is a commitment among its

members to invest its resources in the collective pursuit of understanding.

(Hewitt et al ., 1995, p. 1)

The Knowledge Building Community is a teaching model specifically designed to

deal with the issue of contextualising the delivery of instruction. One of its important

tenets is that instruction should be linked as closely as possible to the contexts and

settings to which it applies in the real world. Furthermore KBC's are based on the

creation of learning environments that:

Support the continuous social construction of knowledge,

THROUGH

ii) The constant construction, de-construction, and reconstruction and sharing of meanings,

SO THAT

iii) The community's knowledge needs are advanced and maintained

In the University of Wollongong's KBC these principles were applied through the

creation of a setting that provided opportunities to engage in three modes of learning:

These three underlying learning principles of the KBC are Community Learning,

School-Based Learning and the vehicle which drives these two sources of learning is

the facilitation of Problem-Based Learning.

●Community Learning (CL): This is achieved through the sharing of ideas and

experiences with other community members, these being the preservice students

themselves, the facilitators (university lecturers), and school-based teachers;

●School-based learning (SBL): is achieved through participating in the school con-

text over a regular period of time. An important principle in the pilot has been to

shift the approach in the practicum component from supervision to mentoring and;

●Problem-based learning (PBL): this is the notion of a curriculum created around a

version of problem-based learning designed for use at the University of

Wollongong. The use of PBL will enable students to engage in group discussions

and data collection to address real life problem scenarios found in school settings.

The use of PBL in teacher education places professional practice at the center of

the student's learning, which encompasses the learning of the student teacher and

the mentor.

Figure 24.1 is a diagrammatic representation of the relationship between these three

principles of learning.

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

The KBC program at the UOW has been evolving for almost 4 years now.

Although we've had to abandon some of the original organisational and procedural

ideals we started with in 1999, the underlying constructivist rationale and philosophy

has remained firmly in place. (Those who are interested in the details of some of

these organizational and procedural changes should refer to Kiggins, 2001).

The 2003 KBC model is best described as "negotiated-evaluation-of-a-non-

negotiable-curriculum-based-on-a-constructivist-model-of-learning-and-

knowledge-building".

This over-nominalised phrase captures the essence of UOW's KBC program in

2003. While the program is still delivered along the original 1999 guidelines of the

KBC ideals (i.e. CL, SBL, and PBL), a significant addition has been the inclusion of

what we call, "the four pillars'of professional wisdom" which now frame and guide

the KBC learning process.

373

THE KNOWLEDGE BUILDING COMMUNITY PROGRAM

KBC

PROBLEM-BASED

LEARNING

COMMUNITY

LEARNING

• Caring for the

community

• Sharing collective

knowledge (WWW)

SCHOOL-BASED

LEARNING

• Being an associate

teacher

• Mentoring

relationships

• Supporting school

organisation

• Appropriate problem

• Optimal group dynamics

• Infomation gathering skills

• Becoming a classroom

anthropologist

Figure 24.1. The relationship of the three principles of learning in the KBC

374

Since 2001 the KBC model has given students the responsibility of negotiating

their assessment tasks. These assessment tasks must be based on a collaborative

analysis of the non-negotiable curriculum i.e. the subject outcomes that mainstream

students are expected to acquire. The students then undertake negotiations with the

teaching staff of the schools where they are Teacher-Associates to ensure that the

tasks they have devised are appropriate and achievable in their particular SBL setting.

These four 'pillars' of UOW's KBC are:

●Taking responsibility for own learning

●Learning through professional collaboration

●Identifying and resolving professional problems

●Becoming a reflective practitioner

When the expectation that all members of the KBC have to acquire skill in using, and

demonstrating conceptual understanding of these four 'pillars' is made explicit, it

sets in train a range of complex interactions within any particular knowledge-building

community. These interactions in turn serve to drive and guide the community. One

important thing these pillars provide is a set of structures, processes, and a form of

discourse, for constructing and completing the assessment tasks. For the four pillars

to operate effectively the triadic partnership of the KBC is essential.

THE TRIADIC PARTNERSHIP

The partnership arrangement entered into by the organising bodies i.e. the Faculty of

Education at the UOW, the NSW DET and the NSW Teachers' Federation, once

implemented, saw the establishment of a triadic partnership between preservice

teachers, school-based mentor teachers and university facilitators. This partnership

became known as the 'community triad". It is timely to examine the nature of this

triadic partnership and the role each stakeholder played. The KBC Project sees the

emergence of relationships between the students themselves, and the students with

their school-based teacher mentors and KBC facilitators. This "community triad"

results in an emergent collaborative relationship between the schools and the university.

The importance of the contribution of all stakeholders can be described by using the

metaphor of a tripod. Unless all three relationships are well established the process

can become unbalanced and, like a tripod with uneven legs, it is unstable. Unstable

relationships in the KBC process makes knowledge building difficult. Knowledge

building requires students to trust that their colleagues are working towards shared

goals. Therefore, trust becomes a required element in the knowledge building

process, and if friendship and trust are not present among the student cohort, this

process is unlikely to occur.

When students are given the opportunity to create friendship and trust in their

school teams they can develop responsibility for their learning and with the support

of the community triad (the KBC facilitators, school-based teachers and each other)

they can develop ownership of their learning. Importantly, having the KBC facilitators

work with the students at university and in the schools helps to keep the triad

functioning.

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

The KBC Project was intended to provide students with quality learning experiences,

and what has also emerged, is that the social interaction and support of each other

and/or the facilitators and/or the school-based teacher mentors as provided by the

KBC structure serves as an important influence on any or all of the students' experiences.

In schools the KBC students felt supported by their mentors and were encouraged to

take risks. Likewise on campus the unrestricted access to the facilitators allows for

the process of co-learning between the students and the facilitators to develop. The

homeroom atmosphere and developing friendships ensured that trust among the

students was becoming a stable platform for them to build knowledge.

The development and formation of the community triad is an important compo-

nent of this alternative model of teacher education. This is especially the case in view

of the complexity of the knowledge building process. Because knowledge building

takes place in two contexts i.e. the school and the university, the community triad has

the common factors that support the students in either setting. Knowledge building in

these two contexts is difficult and therefore a social structure is vital to underpin the

design of the KBC model.

Figure 24.2 is a diagrammatic representation demonstrating the social structure

necessary to replicate a community triad for any future KBC cohort. It includes the

role of the students, university and school staff. This figure not only shows the com-

ponent of a social structure but also highlights the importance of them linking

together and the presence of a homeroom to promote a sense of belonging. The plan-

ning for this needs to be done prior to students entering the KBC project or any of the

participating schools. The creation of the community between KBC facilitators and

school-based staff needs to be viewed as a partnership. When the partnership is oper-

ating efficiently it will keep all members informed or 'in the loop' as to the progress

of the students in either setting.

Figure 24.2 also illustrates the social structures that underpin the KBC at the UOW.

This figure depicts the partnership that has evolved throughout 1999–2002. The figure

outlines the components and relationships that lead to the formation of a KBC.

The learning in a KBC model requires a coherent partnership between learning in

school and at university. The roles of members of the triad are crucial to the success

of the program. The role of each of these stakeholders as illustrated in Figure 24.2 is

discussed below.

University facilitators

The university facilitators are responsible for the coordination of the program, the

school liaison and the recruitment of students. In terms of the coordination it is the

facilitators' duties to ensure that students meet the outcomes of the subjects in which

they are enrolled. This aspect requires meetings with mainstream subject coordina-

tors and lecturers, as well as regular KBC facilitator meetings that discuss and

debrief the students' progress. It is important in a project such as this that unity and

teamwork is not regarded as only a student expectation. The role of KBC facilitator

is a more personal approach and teaching/facilitation takes place not just in the KBC

homeroom but also in the school.

375

THE KNOWLEDGE BUILDING COMMUNITY PROGRAM

376

The KBC homeroom

An important component of the KBC Project is that the KBC facilitation team must

arrange a designated homeroom and it must be obtained prior to the students' arrival

on campus. The homeroom must not be a common teaching area; it needs to be for

the sole purpose of KBC teaching and learning activities. This physical space plays a

vital role in the establishment of the KBC. The homeroom provides stability, a sense

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

obtain Aims/Purpose

achieved through

University facilitators

KBC homeroom

• Stability

•Sense of belonging

• Point of difference

KBC cohort selected Through

application

and interview

Community socialisation

Team building

activities

To develop an

understanding of

group dynamics

Friendship Trust

Taking responsibility

for their own

learning

Working with

school based teacher

MENTORS

Collaborative school

teams

Figure 24.2. Social structures required to underpin a KBC

of belonging, and a place to display work products and emphasises a point of difference

from the traditional mainstream. It is the location where all workshops are held.

KBC cohort selection process

Another role that the KBC facilitator plays is that of recruitment of KBC students.

This step must be included into any 'formula' that attempts to outline the steps

required forming a KBC Project.

Community socialisation

When the students have been recruited through an application and interview process

the KBC facilitators then undertake the process of community socialisation.

Workshops and team building activities that allow students to meet and work with

each other and learn about group dynamics can foster a sense of community. As the

students spend time together friendships emerge. As the students begin to grasp the

principles of group work and get to know one another and how one another works

then trust will also begin to play a role.

When students develop friendships and trust they have the basis of a foundation

that should enable them to work collaboratively in school teams with their school-

based mentors.

Collaborative school teams

To maintain the KBC partnership it is important for all members to be aware of the

roles and responsibilities of each other. This includes the KBC students. KBC students

are the common link between the university facilitator and the school-based teacher

mentor. KBC students need to understand how they fit into the community triad and

the role that they are expected to play. This understanding will benefit the students

when they move between the two learning settings, i.e. the school and the university.

The KBC student needs to be proactive and want to take responsibility for his or

her own learning. They should like open and interactive debate and enjoy the

prospect of questioning and investigating in the school setting. The KBC Project is

best suited to students who like working in groups and collaborating with each other.

In the KBC Project students need to accept that they need to collaborate with each

other and not compete against one another.

The social structure that underpins the KBC Project relies on the roles that the

school-based teacher mentor and university facilitator plays and these members need

to accept that informed students will be questioning and investigating their practice and

viewing themselves as co-learners. Therefore collaborative school teams are needed

for the triadic partnership to form. These collaborative school teams share the roles

of educational anthropologists, problem solvers and mentees.

As educational anthropologists, the students develop structures and processes that

help them to understand their mentors' classroom. They also need to be able to

identify teacher 'informants', teachers who may wish to offer other insights and

information about teaching, learning, children and schools. When the school teams

are working collaboratively they will begin to share responsibility for their learning,

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THE KNOWLEDGE BUILDING COMMUNITY PROGRAM

378

ensuring that they work as an efficient team of learners who collectively find and

share knowledge.

Ideally these teams will be able to work outside of their school team, sharing

insights with all members of the KBC. The process of knowledge building often

takes place when the teams return to the homeroom, is a process that needs facilitation

and doesn't happen immediately. Success is reliant on the facilitating team carrying

out their role in regards to school liaison and ensuring that all participating schools

and mentors know their roles and responsibilities in the KBC Project.

THE SCHOOL-BASED TEACHER MENTORS

The third aspect in the community triad is the role that the teacher mentor plays. This

is a subtle but significant change of the culture of the practicum experience for the

schools involved. This shift is essentially from a "clinical-supervision-one-class-

room-teacher-to-one-student" model to a "mentoring-whole-school-participates"

model. This role cannot be underestimated. When the students commence in the

schools after approximately five weeks of session one, it will be their teacher mentor

that they turn to for advice and support. The partnership that is created between

mentor and mentee will be pivotal for the SBL phase. The students have rated their

time in schools as beneficial because it was here that they were able to experience the

day-to-day operations and come to grips with the multi-faceted role of teachers. Just

as the students reported that they were learning from their mentors, the mentor teachers

reported that they too were learning from the Teacher Associates.

One unexpected spin-off of this change is the perception of teachers at the KBC

schools of their own professional growth as they responded to the many probing

questions about the rationale for the many school and classroom practices which

KBC students continually asked as they sought data for their research tasks. Marks

(2001), reported on this aspect of his school's involvement in UOW's KBC program.

He stated that:

Research strongly supports the conclusion that reflection does enhance teaching

and learning. In our school experience since 1999, reflective practices amongst the

staff have developed:

●as a result of taking on mentoring roles for the KBC program, and

●as a result of collegial management and supervisory styles becoming

the philosophical base of our school.

●In essence the KBC program operated as the vehicle for the imple-

mentation of reflection through the mentoring role.

(Marks, 2001, p. 9)

CONCLUSION

As the learning in a KBC model requires a relationship between learning in school

and at university the role of members of the triad is crucial to the success of the program.

JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

The type of learning proposed by a KBC model necessitates that the students make

their own connections between what they see in schools, read about and discuss at

university. In particular, they need regular contact between members of the triad.

The general consensus from all of the stakeholders who have been involved from

the very beginning, (students, lecturing staff and schools) is that the program has

both tangible and intangible benefits that make it a preferable to the traditional main-

stream mode of delivery. The tangible benefits include:

●Students who develop the skills, knowledge, and understandings of effective

teaching to a much higher degree, in a much shorter time;

●Students who are perceived by experienced teachers to be more committed, enthu-

siastic, confident professionals, than mainstream students in the same cohort;

●Students who are perceived by other mainstream lecturers to be more skilled at

identifying and resolving professional problems, who are more effective and

productive team members, who are more autonomous learners and more reflective

than most mainstream peers; and

●A much stronger partnership between the university, the local schools, the major

employing authority, and the teachers' union.

In order to maintain the working relationship/partnership between the university and

the schools the university facilitator must maintain a presence in the schools. When

the facilitator, the school-based teacher and the KBC students are all in schools at the

same time it cements the triadic partnership that underpins the KBC Project.

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JULIE KIGGINS AND BRIAN CAMBOURNE

INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE

In recent years much attention has been paid to the start up period in teaching influ-

enced at least in part by two main concerns. Firstly, global and local influences such as

educational reforms, demographic changes, concern about standards and the profes-

sional ladder, teacher supply and retention and pressures for school effectiveness and

improvement position 'new' teachers in the van of implementing or bearing the brunt

of new educational policies. Secondly there is evidence of a growing understanding

that professional formation and professional development are elements of a single

continuous process and that this implies the significance of continuity between initial

teacher education and subsequent experience in teaching work. Such continuity may

be both contractual and professionally developmental: that is, it may relate to both the

speed and ease of finding work and the perceived opportunities for development. The

evidence suggests that the transition into working as a teacher has important implica-

tions for establishing professional standards, and justifying subsequent professional

development along the professional ladder (Huberman, 1993, Gold 1996).

An understanding of the importance of the early period in post in any work has

been informed by occupational research which highlights both the significance of

early success in a post for subsequent commitment and the importance of focussing

on staff as a key resource in an organisation (Schein, 1968). Studies of induction into

new posts (Nicholson and West, 1988) have shown that good induction is enabling,

while inadequate or inaccurate induction is disabling. Their model of induction sug-

gests four stages: preparation, encounter, adjustment and stabilisation. An important

emphasis in their model and a period often overlooked in practice is the preparation

stage prior to taking up a post, when there is the opportunity to familiarise new

recruits with key information they will need to ready themselves for the work to be

done and orient themselves to the new work setting. Applying the lessons learned

from occupational research to teaching we can posit that good induction will include

the provision of useful information to staff both before and when they arrive in post,

the provision of support for survival in the early stages and feedback on their teaching.

Schein's emphasis on early success has particular implications for the timetable and

classes which new teachers are given and for the extent to which teachers are clear

about what is expected of them and whether and how well they achieve it. Echoing

Ball (1994) and Kuzmic (1994), Kelchtermans and Ballet (2002) reinforce the

importance of the induction period in acquainting new teachers with the micropolitics

of the school as an aid to their survival and progress.

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VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

25. NEWLY QUALIFIED TEACHERS IN HONG KONG:

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OR

MEETING ONE'S FATE?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 381–390.

382

Educational research suggests that starting work as a teacher is a potentially over-

whelming experience for new teachers report becoming more aware of the heavy

responsibility they carry for learner's education and future opportunities than had

been apparent to them as students on placement in other teachers' classes (in the U.K.

see Draper et al ., 1991: in H.K see Griffin, 1982, 1983 and Griffins and 1984). Their

evidence suggests that professional placement experiences – such as school experi-

ence/teaching practice – while offering opportunities to practise the technical skills

of teaching are unable to fully familiarise the student teacher with all the demands of

the teacher's role. Such 'praxis shock'has been noted by many researchers in spite of

considerable efforts to develop appropriate support systems (Rust, 1994, Gold, 1996,

Wideen et al ., 1998). Bullough et al ., (1989) describe new teachers facing the need

to build a professional identity and self esteem as they move into work. The notion of

a smooth transition into work seems optimistic in the face of all these findings but

also suggests that induction is important to ease the passage where possible. Where

new teachers are additionally faced with job-insecurity such as is posed by fixed-term

contracts, there is additional evidence (Draper et al., 1998) that teachers invest their

time in seeking future work rather than on their professional development. In addition,

Kelchtermans and Ballet (2002) found that those who did not find work in teaching

quickly experienced increased doubt about their professional competence and their

self esteem was threatened.

Drawing on evidence of the complexity and difficulty of starting to teach, some

systems have developed elaborate mechanisms to support induction – for example in

Scotland and England – often with some element of working time free of teaching

commitments and an entitlement to support. In such systems the induction period

leads to an assessment hurdle which represents a test for full entry to the teaching

profession. A controversial dimension of these developments is their assumption that

stakeholders are in agreement about teaching-fundamentals (Britzman, 2000).

Currently the debate about what constitutes teaching-fundamentals has raised con-

cerns over the reduction of teacher training to a set of technical skills and mechanistic

activities. Attempts to relegate teaching to a set of easily measurable behaviours and

outcomes, while typically characteristic of the new managerialist approach to public

sector management, are thought to diminish the true nature of both the impact and

content of teaching. The extensive literature on teaching as a profession (including

that by Eraut, 1994, Kirk et al., 2000, Day, 1999) highlights a number of features

which are understood to be characteristic of professional work including autonomy,

a commitment to service and a commitment to improvement which go well beyond a

technicist conception of teachers'work. The advent of the Lifelong learning approach

reinforces the importance of developing positive attitudes to continuing professional

development (Day, 1999), through professional commitment.

Other systems not characterised by an extended certification stage assume new

teachers are full members of the profession from the point of qualifying. These

systems prompt their own particular debate. Characterised by perceptions of being

required to train too-much within too little time, teacher-trainers' debate prioritise

their focus on either extending trainees existing beliefs (Calderhead and Robson,

VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

1991), encourage trainees to go beyond best current practice (Bramald et al ., 1995,

Wideen et al ., 1998) or recognise the need to change trainees' perspectives

(Lieberman, 2000). Choosing between such priorities has been argued to be solely

the responsibility of teacher educators (Hargreaves, 1994; Dill, 1998; Wilson, 2000)

while others see in such a demarcation a breeding-ground for conformity and

compliance (Elby, 1997; Britzman, 2000). Such debate again points to continuing

uncertainty about teaching-fundamentals although one dimension of teachers' work

which has been generally agreed as key to the success of new teachers is successful

class management and control (Veenman, 1984).

In Hong Kong those entering teaching experience a system that equates salary to

qualifications. Three different routes are possible and equate to different salary

expectations, the highest being a full-time pre-service teacher education, followed by

part-time in-service teacher education while teaching as an unqualified teacher and

the lowest, teaching without a professional qualification. New teachers seek posts in

competition with other teachers and once in post have full teaching commitments.

The challenge for teacher-trainers of full-time pre-service teachers under this Hong

Kong system is to help these new teachers to cope as full members of the profession

from the point of qualifying.

Common to both approaches to the professional formation of teachers has been

concern with providing scope for reflection on early professional experience (Schon,

1991; Elby, 1997). Continuing to reflect upon practice is recognised both as an

important dimension for professional development and very difficult for those who

carry a full timetable from day one. Opportunities to reflect upon what is working

and what isn't are limited when work demands are perceived to be very high. The

availability of colleagues as mentors to facilitate that reflection is similarly important.

If this perception of high workload is shared by both new-teachers and by experienced

teachers, it may threaten the provision of effective school-based mentoring (Pang,

2001; Cheng et al., 2002).

Using these ideas of professionalism and induction into post as a framework for

the evaluation of teachers work, this chapter will explore the experiences of newly

qualified teachers in Hong Kong. It will also seek to evaluate to what extent and in

what ways new teachers in Hong Kong have a good professional start to their careers

and what predictions might be made about their continuing professional development

in teaching.

RESEARCH METHOD

To investigate beginning teachers' experiences of their first year of teaching a mixed

quantitative and qualitative approach was adopted. Graduates (n 72:12% of Hong

Kong's annual supply of new graduate teachers) from one full-time Post Graduate in

Education Programme (PGDE) (offered by the Department of Education Studies,

Hong Kong Baptist University PGDE in AY 2001–02) were monitored during one

Secondary school year (September to June 2002–03). Two parallel questionnaires

were issued to these graduates – the first in September 2002, the second in June

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384

2003. To add qualitative insights to this quantitative data, randomly selected volunteers

(n  12:17%) were interviewed at four times throughout the teaching year

(September, December, April and June).

The two parallel questionnaires were derived from an established study of teachers

conducted in Scotland and adapted to the Hong Kong context. Comprising twenty-three

open-ended questions, the two parallel questionnaires explored respondents' teach-

ing duties, experience of applying for a teaching post; formal induction into teaching;

informal induction into teaching; self-perceptions of themselves as teachers; current

experiences of being a teacher, reflections on their PGDE programme and personal

details (excluding personal identifiers).

The timing of the two parallel questionnaires sought to capture pre and post expe-

riential views of respondents' first year as a full time Secondary school teacher. The

first questionnaire was completed within the first month of full-time teaching

(September 2002); the second questionnaire was administered within the last month

of full-time teaching (June 2003). The return rates for each questionnaire were low

(respectively 43% and 28%) and attributed to an overlap with other questionnaires at

the beginning of the year and at the end of the year and a combination of unforeseen

factors including employment-uncertainty and the pressures of Severe Acute

Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). As the questionnaires were anonymous, cross

comparison of individual responses was not possible. Although the results of each

questionnaire cannot be claimed to be representative they do reveal a number of

issues which must be of concern.

Four sets of standardised interviews were made by one interviewer employing a

standardised interview protocol comprising prompts and probes that sought to explore

respondents' teaching context; views on what is 'good' about teaching; views about

what is 'challenging' about teaching; what support they have received, what support

they would like to receive and their reflections on the PGDE training programme.

The interview schedule comprised four interviews – the first as the school started

(September) followed by interviews that trisected the teaching year (December;

April; June). The closure of schools due to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

(SARS) in March & April enforced two methodological adjustments. First, the April

interviews were completed by telephone: second, the April interview questioned

respondents'views prior to SARS then duplicated the same questions but with reference

to respondents' views during SARS.

All interviewees (n 12:17%) comprised randomly selected volunteers. Where

interviews were conducted in Cantonese, verified translations made these responses

available in English. Coding and tabulation of recorded responses was verified

through standard protocols involving independent parallel analysis. To protect

respondents' identities, all quotations are cited free of personal identifiers.

In summation, both the questionnaire and interview data provides evidence of

respondents' teaching context, support received, experiences of being a teacher and

reflections on the PGDE programme. Drawing on this evidence now provides

insights to these newly qualified teachers' experiences and their responses to their

first teaching year.

VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

FINDINGS

Two clusters are reported: first, their experiences of finding work, induction and

preparation and their responses to teaching, establishing competence and their future

professional development.

Finding work

For our sample, finding work had not been easy. They reported making numerous

applications (minimum 40, maximum 250, with a mean of 70), resulting in a small

number of subsequent interviews. Over half had been offered only one post but 40%

had had a choice. For those who were able to choose a post, the nature of the contract

(permanent or renewable) had been the most important criterion, followed by location.

A third of the respondents held full time permanent contracts. In summary, respondents

reported a highly competitive job-market where the majority (66%) of those who

found teaching posts were on fixed-term contracts.

The posts which the new teachers held were distributed across the ability bands of

Hong Kong pupils. Half taught at least two forms and three quarters taught up to

three different forms, and half taught one or two remedial forms. While 12 taught one

subject, 9 taught 2 subjects and 7 taught three. The new teachers mostly taught a

range of forms at different stages with a spread of ages of at least 3 years. The range

of students and subjects was thus substantial. Three quarters (22) reported their

teaching load as average, while 5 teachers said their load was heavy. By the second

data collection point under a third (6) said their load was average and over half (11)

perceived it as heavy. The teachers do not report significant changes in the number of

forms or hours they teach and thus it is assumed that this difference of perception has

come about because they are now more familiar with their colleagues'workload than

they were at the earlier stage. In summary, these new teachers were required to teach

across ability bands, across school forms and across subjects – in effect new teachers

were not 'eased' into the teaching profession.

Induction and preparation

In our sample of Hong Kong teachers nearly all (93%) knew they had a job at least

2–3 weeks before it began. Information on their teaching timetable took a little

longer however with 80% knowing their timetable a week in advance, 10% finding

out their timetable the week they began teaching and 10% still unsure at the time of

the questionnaire. School policies took a little longer again with three quarters (73%)

knowing about them a week before they began work and 20% finding out in week

one. Learning about school practices was a mystery to nearly half of the sample until

the week they actually began teaching, and 17% remained unsure at the time of the

first questionnaire. Finally knowing who to ask for reliable help was unclear to one

third during the first week of teaching and this had significant consequences:

Because I didn't know (who to ask) I was crying at home when facing

some problems.

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NEWLY QUALIFIED TEACHERS IN HONG KONG

386

In the initial stages of teaching only one third had been allocated a formal mentor and

even when there was an identified supporter, support was not guaranteed. While

some saw their mentor regularly, for example, every 2 days, about twice a month etc.

and some frequently, others had no set pattern of meetings and some had no meetings

at all. Some had no fixed time but the mentor was approachable when there was a

problem which while offering support placed the beginning teacher into deficit rather

than more positive mode. Asked about advice offered by the mentor there were only

a few mentions of advice for professional practice, for example on dealing with

classroom discipline or preparation of work and no mentions of help in understanding

what Ball (1994) terms 'the micropolitics of the school'. For a fortunate minority

advice was available elsewhere:

It is good that there are three new teachers (including me) … we get

great support from each other. I also have friends who entered the pro-

fession this year … we often talk on the phone. I'm also extremely lucky

that I also get support from my family … both my parents are teachers.

Taken together the above findings suggest that a significant proportion of new teachers

lacked the basic guidance and information they needed in order to perform effectively

in the teaching role.

Given these experiences, how did these new recruits respond? The following now

reports their initial responses to teaching, establishing competence and their future

professional development.

INITIAL RESPONSES TO TEACHING

Levels of commitment – see Table 25.1 – are similar at the two stages and suggest

that experience had not blunted their enthusiasm for teaching. These findings are

encouraging as positive indicators of their professional commitment and perhaps of

their effective pre-employment training.

Most (70%) saw themselves as still developing their teaching style. Informed by

feedback mainly from pupils only a few felt they were performing poorly as teachers

though only a quarter said they were doing well.

There was more satisfaction with salary in the earlier but not the later stage perhaps

linked to a growing perception of a heavy work-load which, as in many other studies, was

a major and continuing issue of concern – Table 25.2. Friendliness of colleagues was val-

ued "Someone to talk to … to cope with the stress" but more so than their professional

VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

TABLE 25.1 Commitment to the job

Early Later

1 Very little 0 0

2 16.7 10.5

3 70 73.7

4 Complete 13.3 15.8

views. Moral support from society and teaching resources were increasingly perceived as

unsatisfactory. These cumulative pressures on new teachers are perhaps reflected in con-

cerns over the balance between work and personal life, especially in the earlier stage.

Overall Table 25.2 demonstrates that satisfaction decreased slightly over the

period – a summation ironically summarised by one interviewee as: To survive you

have to be 'superwoman'.

Establishing competence

When do new teachers find out what is important to do well? At the outset 11%

remained in the dark and nearly half (48%) reported they did not know if their per-

formance was 'ok'. Of those who claimed they did know over half (53%) reported

they had found out for themselves. Only a third reported they had been told either by

their Panel Chairs, or by administrative staff. Notably, the main source of information

on school policies and practices was the administrative staff.

The dissemination of professional knowledge by non-professional sources is also

apparent when new teachers reported how they knew that their performance was

'ok'. Minor sources of this knowledge comprised experienced teachers (10%) or

Panel Chairs (3%); major sources were self discovery (21%), pupils (10%) or admin-

istrative staff (7%). Such dependency on professional knowledge from non-profes-

sional sources does not bode well for this profession.

Their future professional development

Most were intending to stay in teaching (84%) with nearly 70% considering further

training, mostly at masters' level. For the minority in stable employment, future con-

cerns focused on their perceived heavy workload. Asked what professional develop-

ment would assist them, the majority raised pragmatic issues related to alleviating

workload stress:

Less work! … smaller class size … someone to talk to …

For the majority – those on fixed-term contracts – their key challenge was that of

securing a new post or contract renewal.

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NEWLY QUALIFIED TEACHERS IN HONG KONG

TABLE 25.2 Mean satisfaction with aspects of teaching (4 point scale,

1 very satisfied, 4  very dissatisfied)

Early Later

Increased satisfaction

Balance between work and personal life 2.73 2.63

Friendliness of colleagues 1.83 1.78

Decreased satisfaction

Salary 1.77 2.11

Workload 2.53 2.57

Colleagues' views of teaching 1.97 2.37

Society's view of teaching 2.03 2.47

Availability of resources 2.47 2.57

388

DISCUSSION

Several factors have been identified as contributing to the effective induction,

professional development and commitment of new teachers – good preparation, sup-

port, feedback on teaching, early success – and it seems that against this standard the

experiences of at least some new teachers in Hong Kong are less supportive than they

might be. While some new entrants are fortunate, and find themselves in supportive

school environments others lack basic information about the context in which they

are working, what is expected of them and feedback on how well they are doing. In

the absence of key information and feedback many fall back on their own self evalu-

ations, uninformed by other professional advice. It is interesting, though not unusual,

that a professional group committed to the learning of others does not consistently

and consciously apply that understanding of learning to its own members. Yet it is not

only the new teachers themselves but the schools in which they work and most

importantly their pupils who pay the price of inadequate support. In these circum-

stances it is difficult to see how their professional development can be progressed as

well as it might be. The aim in seeking continuity with initial training is not only to

ease the passage into teaching but also simultaneously to locate new teachers on a

path of continuing professional development.

The achievement of early success has been identified as particularly important for

the consolidation and development of teacher commitment. The evidence offered

here suggests that several factors reduce the chance of early success for these new

teachers. Fostering commitment to teaching is not only important for those con-

cerned about supply and retention. It has significance for attitudes and motivation to

professional development. While some new teachers are clearly offered experiences

which support the development of commitment, others' experiences fall far short of

this. A key dimension of professional behaviour is commitment to continuing

improvement. In the absence of support and feedback one danger is that staff will set-

tle for 'good enough' teaching: getting by rather than getting on, and that in time their

approach to their work will be characterised by a restricted professional strategy.

A further dimension highlighted in these findings is the impact of fixed-term con-

tracts. That a considerable proportion are concerned about the possibility of finding

a secure post does not bode well for commitment nor professional development. It is

expensive to train teachers and, in a fast changing environment characterised in Hong

Kong by rapid changes in educational priorities, it is important that they further

develop their competence once in post. Both initial training and subsequent professional

development are investments in education. Establishing formal support structures or

at least ensuring that the experiences of new teachers are monitored for their induction

and developmental value would be steps toward protecting these investments and

enhancing the education of the pupils these new teachers teach.

Since many of the teachers had little or no choice about the school in which they

taught and schools offered very different opportunities to new teachers, it appears

that becoming a new teacher in Hong Kong is less a matter of professional development

and more a case of meeting one's fate.

VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

CONCLUSION

The evidence indicates that Hong Kong Secondary schools fail to provide adequate –

or indeed any – mentoring support to these new teachers. However within the current

Hong Kong professional teacher training system there is as yet little support provided

to compensate schools that wish to devote valuable staff-time to mentoring.

If, as the evidence suggests, new teachers are left largely unsupported at the begin-

ning of their teaching careers, the question arises about what support can established

teachers expect? Where new teachers and experienced teachers are both being tasked

by new education reforms and changing educational priorities, adequate provision

for school-based staff-support systems may seem an essential investment.

Where schools cannot offer support, the possibility arises of enhancing the role of

teacher-training providers. The current teacher-training learning-scaffold may be further

developed to address the issues and concerns raised by these findings. Where new

teachers' perceptions of their initial year career can more closely conform to its realities,

then their transition into professional teaching may be less a matter of meeting one's

Fate and more closely conform to a professional development.

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VICTOR FORRESTER AND JANET DRAPER

THE SCOTTISH CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK

Recent interest in providing teachers in Scotland with a coherent career development

path has led to a framework for Continuing Professional Development (CPD) being

established. Following Initial Teacher Education (ITE), beginning teachers work

towards demonstrating that they have reached the Standard for Full Registration

(SFR) (SEED, 2002). This Standard builds on the required outcomes of ITE, but has

a greater emphasis on consistency and consolidation/extension of professional

practice coupled with some new areas of development. Teachers are expected to

reach this level by the end of their first year of teaching, but they do so in extremely

supportive circumstances. Later in their careers, teachers can work towards the

Chartered Teacher Standard (Kirk et al., 2003; O'Brien and Draper, 2003) and the

Standard for Headship (O'Brien et al ., 2003).

PREVIOUS WORK ON BEGINNING TEACHERS

There has been much interest in the professional development of teachers in their

first year and in characteristics of induction and mentoring (e.g. Bullough, 1989;

Gold, 1996; Lang, 2002). In Scotland, work from the late 1980s and early 1990s

suggested that the two year probation period for entrants to the profession was expe-

rienced more as a time of trial than a time of development (Draper et al ., 1991). For

many, the emphasis was on proving that they were capable of doing the job but for

some it was also an opportunity to build on ITE and to develop their own style and

build expectations of professional development as a career long process.

This study also identified good practice, particularly in the area of observation.

This included probationers having prior notice of when observation was going to take

place, there being a specific focus for observation, and opportunities being created to

share feedback after the observation period. Recently the need for a clear and nego-

tiated focus has been highlighted (Bleach, 1999), as has the need for observers to be

trained in high-order inter-personal skills (Smith, 1997).

While much was already understood about what might be helpful in probation, it was

clear that this did not translate into experience for all beginning teachers. Failings

included a high proportion of unanticipated observations and lack of feedback (Draper

et al., 1991, 1993). More recent surveys found that the Scottish two-year probationary

period was being served in a range of ways. About half of those who began teaching in

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26. MEETING THE STANDARD? THE NEW TEACHER

EDUCATION INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 391–406.

392

Scotland in 1995 worked full time in one school while others worked part time or in

several schools. Some had to complete their probation by taking a series of supply jobs,

sometimes in many, many schools, with great uncertainty of employment and little, if

any, support for their development. The average length of time to complete the two year

probationary period was three and a half years, if indeed they persevered in the profes-

sion (Draper et al., 1997a; SEED, 2001). The experience of probation 'on supply' in

particular led to an emphasis on coping and on securing further employment which

detracted from the process of development. (Draper et al ., 1997b).

THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME: CHANGING

THE EXPERIENCE OF PROBATION

The fragmentary nature of some probationers' employment and the lack of systematic

support was described in 2000 by the 'McCrone' Committee of Enquiry into profes-

sional conditions of service for teachers as 'little short of scandalous' (SEED, 2000,

p. 7). It recommended that probationers be offered more continuous employment and

not be used for supply teaching.

The Agreement which followed the 'McCrone' Report, A Teaching Profession for

the 21st century, made provision for changes to be made to the probationary period

and in August 2002 new teachers joined a Teacher Induction Scheme which involved

a number of significant differences from the earlier model. Probation was reduced

from two years to one. Instead of the range of early experiences, every teacher com-

pleting their ITE in Scotland was entitled to a one year training post. Student teachers

were asked to rank five Authorities (out of 32) as their first five choices for place-

ment. Places were then allocated through a process designed to match choices to

predicted vacancies. In the event there were more probationers than vacancies then

some supernumerary posts were created. The uncertainty about finding work in

teaching that had dogged those entering teaching was replaced by a guarantee of initial

work and supported development.

Instead of teaching full time, new teachers were guaranteed a 70% teaching load,

with 30% of the time designated for professional development. Support became an

entitlement, with an experienced member of staff designated as a mentor or supporter

and freed for 10% of the week. Starting pay for new teachers would be on a new point

below teacher scale. In the past, summative assessment determined whether proba-

tioners would be permitted to become fully registered with the General Teaching

Council Scotland (GTCS) as members of the profession. With the new scheme, pro-

bationers have to produce a portfolio of evidence to show that they have met the

newly introduced SFR, against a background of structured observation and develop-

ment opportunities.

THE STANDARD FOR FULL REGISTRATION

The Standard for Full Registration has two purposes. First of all, it serves as a scaf-

fold for the professional development expected of teachers during the course of their

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

induction and secondly, it provides a benchmark against which beginning teachers

can be assessed.

The standard consists of 23 quite general statements augmented by 96 more

specific illustrations of professional practice. The statements are presented under the

headings Professional Knowledge and Understanding, Professional Skills and

Abilities and Professional Values and Personal Commitments, a model which

permeates the CPD framework The subheadings for Professional Knowledge and

Understanding are curriculum, educational systems and professional responsibilities

and principles and perspectives. Professional Skills and Abilities include teaching

and learning, classroom organisation and management, the assessment of pupils and

professional reflection and communication.

THE REALITY OF THE FIRST YEAR

This chapter focuses on observation and the Standard for Full Registration, elements

of a study of the experiences of secondary probationers and their supporters in the

first year of the Scheme. The Project report (Christie et al ., 2003) and related

publications (Draper et al., 2004; O'Brien and Christie, 2005) provide additional

information and commentary on other aspects of the study.

Of course, the reality of the Scheme in its first year may well be different from that

of following years as it beds down and all concerned become better acquainted with

its requirements. Because it was introduced precipitately, there were muddled

arrangements in the early stages. There were for example failures of communication

regarding the placement of probationers (one probationer we interviewed had to

inform the school himself that he had been appointed there), late arrival in schools of

the documentation accompanying the Scheme, and placements that made no

allowance for difficult personal circumstances. The perception of the probationers

and supporters was that there was a certain arbitrariness in the way concessions were

made to people unhappy with their placement. These administrative glitches may

well be unique to the first year of the Scheme's operation. Nevertheless, a good

understanding of what has and has not worked will, we hope, provide a good resource

for all concerned with the Scheme in the future and allow both comparison with

studies of the introduction of similar innovations elsewhere (for example in England,

Kyriacou and O'Connor (2003), and for Hong Kong in 2003 (ACTEQ)) and the iden-

tification of implications for policy implementation.

RESEARCHING THE INDUCTION SCHEME

Data on the Scheme was collected in a number of ways. Case Studies were carried

out in 12 Secondary Schools in 12 different Local Authorities. The probationers and

those supporting them both departmentally and at a whole school level were inter-

viewed and documents relating to the Scheme were gathered. In addition, a twenty-six

item questionnaire, including open and closed questions, was sent to all 32 Education

Authorities in Scotland for completion by the person with overall responsibility for

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

394

probationers. Twenty-five Authorities responded, representing a 78% response rate.

Finally, data were collected from probationers by means of an online questionnaire as

the first year of the Scheme was ending. There were 44 responses with just under half

from probationers who had taken part in the case studies while the others were from

individuals involved in an informal on-line support network for probationers set up

by a Higher Education Institution.

In this chapter we are, of course, only able to report on a small proportion of the

data gathered. The main focus will be the Scheme as experienced by the probationers

themselves and we shall seek to address the issue of the balance experienced in the

new scheme between proving competence and development.

EXPERIENCES OF PROBATIONERS

The probationers' experiences were extensive. The Scheme's documentation expects

that the probationers will take part in a considerable amount of observation and this

happened in most cases. All the respondents to the on-line questionnaire had

observed somebody else teaching and all had been formally observed, although not

everyone had been observed the expected number of times. Other CPD activities

reported including shadowing classes or pupils, being a member of a school com-

mittee, attending CPD courses either offered by the Local Authority specifically for

probationers or general curriculum related courses, visits to other schools or depart-

ments within the school and in a handful of cases, relating research to practice.

In addition, the Scheme suggests support in the form of a weekly meeting and tries

to ensure progression and ownership by requiring that targets be negotiated. In the

Case Study interviews, probationers were invited to give examples of their current

targets. These could be divided broadly into teaching and learning issues, such as dif-

ferentiation and learning support, behaviour and classroom management, curriculum

issues, such as investigating a stage not on their timetable, and ICT, both improving

personal skills and using ICT in the classroom. Understanding of other parts of the

school's life, such as Guidance and Social Education was also mentioned, as were the

New Community School and a visit to a Primary School.

Together these represent major developmental opportunities for these new teachers

and significant progress when compared to the varied set of experiences available

prior to the new system. They also reflect a wide conception of professional devel-

opment, with different types of learning opportunity being offered.

OBSERVATION AND THE STANDARD FOR FULL REGISTRATION (SFR)

Our main focus within the confines of this chapter is observation, as this was a

significant lack for many in the old dispensation. The expectation is that there will be

regular observation sessions. First, we report on the frequency of observation, who

the observers were, the perceived usefulness of observation and variations in practice,

mainly based on the data from the online questionnaire. Then we examine the comments

made during the Case Study interviews on experiences of observation and assessment.

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

We also look at the new Standard for Full Registration and the way that it, and the

accompanying paperwork, was used during the first year of the Scheme.

Number of observations

A third of the probationers who responded to the online questionnaire received fewer

than nine formal observations, the number recommended in the documentation that

accompanied the Scheme (see Figure 26.1). Nearly forty per cent had nine observa-

tions and just under 30% had more than nine.

Previous research had shown that the number of observation sessions dropped sig-

nificantly over the two year period, notably after the first term (Draper et al ., 1991).

These current data show that there was only a slight drop in the number of observations

after Christmas (see Figure 26.2). The full range of number of observations reported

was four to fifteen observations. The mean number of observations was 8.95, sug-

gesting that schools had, in general, been conscientious about fulfilling at least the

letter of the requirements.

Observers

There was a range of observers. This was partly because of the requirements of the

Scheme itself, which recommended that two of the observations be carried out by an

independent observer and partly due to the way schools adapted the Scheme to suit

their own circumstances. The documentation produced by the General Teaching

Council Scotland (GTCS) envisaged that there be a probationer supporter appointed,

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

Total Number of Observations

% of probationers

(n = 42)

Fewer than

nine

Nine More than

nine

Figure 26.1. Number of times students were observed teaching

Less than

four

Four Five More

than five

Before Christmas

After Christmas

Formal observations before and after Christmas

% of probationers

(n = 42)

Figure 26.2. When students were observed

396

with additional management of the Scheme provided by the Head Teacher. In fact, we

found in the Case Study Schools that most Head Teachers had devolved responsibility

for managing the Scheme to a member of the Senior Management Team and that much

of the day-to-day support was being provided by someone in the department. Some

schools had another layer of support in the person of a Senior Teacher, each with dif-

ferent levels of involvement. All but one of the teachers had been formally observed by

their departmental supporter. Most probationers in our survey had been observed by

their whole school co-ordinator, about half of them by their head teacher and by others.

These included other probationers (although these are not likely to have been formal

observations in terms of the Scheme) and a few by staff from the local authority.

Perceived usefulness of observation

Respondents were asked how many observations they would consider useful looking

back on their experience of the year (see Figure 26.3). One third thought that fewer

observations would have been useful, but two-thirds felt that the number of observa-

tions they had had was useful. Those who would have preferred fewer observations

had between six and twelve observations. No probationers believed that more obser-

vations would have been useful.

In addition, respondents were asked to comment on the usefulness of the observations

for their development (see Figure 26.4). Most, nearly ninety per cent, rated observation

as having been useful. Thirty nine per cent said it had been quite useful and 50% had

found it very useful. Only 9% suggested it had not been useful, and 2% not useful at all.

Those who questioned the usefulness of observation all had nine observations or more.

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

Perceived useful number of observations

Fewer than I had The same as I had

% of probationers

(n = 44)

Figure 26.3. Number of observations perceived to be useful by students

Perceived usefulness of observation for

development

Not useful

at all

Not very

useful

Quite

useful

Very

useful

% of probationers

(n = 44)

Figure 26.4. Usefulness of observations as perceived by students

Variations

There were variations in the numbers of observations. For example, older probation-

ers had more observations: a mean of 9.5 observations for teachers aged 29 and over

as opposed to a mean of 8.5 for teachers under 29. There was no difference by gen-

der. The Case Studies provided evidence of differences in observation practices

across subjects. Subjects with open plan teaching areas, such as Art, PE and Business

Studies, seemed to lend themselves more easily to informal observation, particularly

in team teaching situations. Sometimes these more informal arrangements were sub-

sequently designated as a formal observation to satisfy the bureaucratic requirements

of the Scheme.

I think in PE because you teach sometimes in half a games hall, we are

seen a lot anyway so the observation weren't that big a deal …

Probationer

I'm lucky in that I can say, 'I've been watching you for the last half hour,

that was fine and I'm just going to record that'.

Principal Teacher /Supporter [in an open plan Art department]

A similarly casual approach was found in small departments where the probationer was

supernumerary and thus freed up the supporter from their timetable. Because much if

not all of the planning and teaching was done co-operatively anyway, the Scheme's

demands of planning observations and debriefing thereafter seemed irrelevant.

I have to say … that a couple of times me and the PT, we just sort of take

the classes and we've actually a day later said, oh, will that have been

the observed lesson, after I have actually done it … . The two of us work-

ing so much together, there's no point sitting planning … we'll just have

that day last week as your observed lesson then, quite casual.

Probationer

Comparison with ITE observation

Evidence about the nature of the observation experienced emerged from the com-

ments made by probationers and supporters in the Case Study Schools. Some

favourably compared their experience of observation during the induction year with

their observed lessons, still informally known as 'crits', during their Initial Teacher

Education.

… it's far less intimidating than a crit. It's actually very easy to forget

that the supporter is in the classroom. Sometimes you actually forget that

you are being observed and you just really get on with it so what they get

is a picture of what you are really like ….

Probationer

… I've found it's more like … team teaching. Like, you do, obviously, the

teaching, but when you are walking round and helping a class, they walk

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

398

round as well and look at the kids'jotters and … talk to the kids … So it's

not as unnerving as maybe a crit lesson is …

Probationer

Some still found the experience stressful:

Q: How did you find the process of observation?

A: Really good, stressful but very …

A: Stressful but not as stressful as a crit.

A:Just as stressful as a crit .

Probationers

The stress of the observed lesson and the consequent artificiality caused some pro-

bationers to suggest a more informal approach, in contrast with the probationers of

Draper et al 's 1991 survey who were more concerned with knowing if, when and by

whom they would be observed. This difference suggests that the idea of being

observed by colleagues as a teacher has come to be regarded more as normal practice

than before. As something required by the Scheme, it is less questioned and may perhaps

represent something traded for the entitlement to support?

I think it would help if the observed lessons were slightly more

informal … because I know that I teach totally differently … when some-

body's watching me than when I'm in a class on my own and most of the

time it's a lot worse because I am much more tense.

Probationer

I would be quite happy for very informal, perhaps if the PT just wanted

to pick a lesson and come in and have a look, in a lot of ways I think they

would get a better view of how you're performing rather than this false

arranged observed lesson …

Probationer

Link to support and assessment

Comments made by staff supporting probationers and the probationers themselves

indicate the close link between, on the one hand, observation and support, and on the

other, observation and assessment. For many, observation was a completely positive

and developmental experience.

… you don't feel that you are trying to hide anything or prove anything.

You are wanting feedback rather than a grade at the end of it all and it's

made a huge difference.

Probationer

I have found the feedback very useful, both the positive feedback at the

start to let me know that I am on the right track … it's just a little boost

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

and also the constructive criticism which just lets me know what I can be

doing better and how I can improve on it. That's been excellent.

Probationer

However, for some it was clear that observations were to be seen as opportunities to

prove competence, with the accompanying risk of failure. Here, observation was

very close to assessment, rather than being a developmental opportunity.

Q: what was that [the interim report] based on?

A: The observations, I think.

Probationer

Q: Can I ask about assessment … who was involved, and how did you

find it as an assessment procedure?

A: I don't think it really was a procedure, I think it was just taking into

account your observed sessions …

Probationer

Comments from the staff involved with the probationers also reflect the close

relationship between observation and assessment.

Q: Tell me the process that led up to the interim report.

A: I kept my own records of the weekly meetings, I kept a record of

each lesson that I observed, and built up an idea of where the

probationer's strengths and weaknesses lay.

Principal Teacher

We have adopted the system that I do one initially of the crits, the sup-

porter will do three and the external observer will do one, so that it's five

now. Clearly our aim [is] that having reached a consensus through those

five crits we will move on to the second phase which will concentrate

very much on those who are deemed to be failing.

Member of Senior Management Team (SMT)

… between October and Christmas they were worried about this interim

report, about the observed lessons which they saw as crits. It's difficult to

get round that and in some ways that's just what it amounts to.

Member of SMT

What's helpful and unhelpful?

The probationers generally positively evaluated having multiple observers, honest

but constructive criticism and an open-door policy.

It's good having lots of different people as well because, you know, you get

different perspectives, some people think some things are really good some

think they don't, it makes you realise that just because somebody doesn't

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

400

agree with something you do it's not necessarily wrong and because some-

body agrees with something you do it's not necessarily right either …

Probationer

It helps especially when you are being observed in the feedback if some-

body can be direct and honest because there would be no point having

feedback or observations if somebody was just going to say everything

was great, there was no problems, because it actually can't be the case in

your first year and you really need to have somebody who isn't con-

cerned or isn't going to be bothered about saying, you've got to work on

this, or that wasn't very good.

Probationer

It's a very open atmosphere is this school, I've found. … if I am walking

by another member of my department's class and they happen to be

teaching something that I feel I could benefit from seeing, I can just

knock the door and walk straight in …

Probationer

Poor management of observation included doing too many in too short a space of

time, lack of training leading to unrealistic expectations or inconsistency and obser-

vation by the head teacher being announced for a three week period which didn't sub-

sequently take place leaving the sense of having been nervous for nothing.

… the observed lessons weren't spread out, so you basically would have

maybe had one a week or some people had more than that … two a week,

so how do you benefit, how do you benefit and how do you reflect and

self-evaluate and do better the next time when they are coming so quickly

and it was more like a paper exercise …

Probationer

Training for supporters is important. Because you are a teacher, doesn't

necessarily mean that you are a trainer … These teachers do this off the

top of their heads, they're expected to do all these things.

Probationer

You get some feedback, but you have got the head teacher saying you are

absolutely wonderful, and another person saying you need to change

this. They need to be trained for consistency.

Probationer

As with the online survey, some of the probationers interviewed in the Case Studies

felt that nine observations were too many and that there should be a more flexible

arrangement.

I think maybe up to January, once every three weeks, ok, fair enough, but

then after January I think we should get a bit more lee-way … there

should be … not a get-out clause … but effectively maybe once every one

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

and a half months, just because it is a bit of pressure, no matter

what anybody says, when you've got an observed lesson the pressure

is on.

Probationer

THE SFR AND THE PROFILES

From the comments made by school staff in our interviews it seems that the SFR

had four main uses. First it provided a framework for the observed lessons, as

suggested in the documentation. However, there was widespread unhappiness

with the observation form provided by the GTCS, which was not much more than a

list of the statements. Many authorities and schools had adapted the form to suit

their own purposes. Second, the Standard formed an integral part of the

Interim Profile and was used as a reference for comments written about the proba-

tioners. Some of those who used it to write the interim report conceded that they

had not gained any familiarity with its contents. Third, in a minority of cases it

served to provide guidance as to what should be provided in the way of CPD

opportunities.

I used the Standard as development stuff – pupil support, learning

support …

Whole School Co-ordinator

This was felt to be limiting by one probationer at least:

It's almost like going through the motions for the sake of it, just to satisfy

the Standard for Full Registration Criteria … sometimes it's not relevant

to what you are doing and you feel obliged to attend these things.

Probationer

Finally, some managers of induction used the SFR for quality control, to check that

the Scheme was being properly administered in their schools and that probationers

were getting the opportunities they were entitled to. However, those who used it

expressed reservations about it, both about the whole concept of competence-based

assessment, and the wording of the document itself.

It makes you feel that you'd have to be an absolute paragon to get all of

it and the idea that you have to meet all of this is just ludicrous.

Whole School Co-ordinator

I think getting through the jargon is the thing that is quite time consum-

ing … There is a place for it, I think, if we can get to the point where it's

common English so we can understand it.

Assistant Principal Teacher/

Departmental Supporter

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

402

It's a fairly comprehensive list … some of which are, as always, difficult

to pin down.

Departmental Supporter

Some felt that they would have used the Standard more if they had doubts about a

probationer's competence:

… if we had probationers who were really struggling and we were not

confident that they were meeting the competences required then I think

we would have needed much closer references to these.

Whole School Co-ordinator

Finally, some members of staff and probationers admitted that they did not use the

Standard at all.

To be perfectly honest I do not have time to sit and go through that

blooming document, time and time again, because it has taken us so long

to get used to where everything is and what it all means and I don't have

time, I really don't.

Probationer

The Standard forms part of the Interim and Final Profiles, which are completed by

the probationers in conjunction with their supporter and head teacher. The profiles

are eight pages long. The first page provides the probationer's personal details. There

are two pages to record meetings with the supporters and observed teaching, fol-

lowed by two pages to record professional development, consisting of four boxes

covering planning and preparation, core professional development activities, individ-

ual professional development activities and gaining experience within the school.

The Standard is then reproduced with a page opposite it with spaces for comments to

be made about the probationer in terms of the Standard. The final page is the

Professional Development Action Plan. There was widespread confusion and frus-

tration about completing the profile.

… the filling in of the interim one was very confusing for them because

there's box after box, what do you put in it?

Departmental Supporter

It's futile, the boxes to fill in are just ludicrous … it was time-

consuming …

Probationer

A hoop to jump through that wasn't much fun … there was fire in the

hoop. It was a lot of paperwork and it was a matter of getting boxes filled

out …

Probationer

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

the GTC said that this [completing the Interim report] can't be a paper-

work exercise but that's what it turned out being because everything was

written down in the correct lingo, in the correct jargon …

Probationer

This need to provide written evidence for everything was obviously of great concern

to many:

… when you have your little meeting with him [the Whole School

Co-ordinator] on your own and he's asking you what you've done, I've

found that I've said things and he says 'is that in your book?' …

'no' … 'that should be in your book, get it in the book'.

Probationer

However, in small departments with constant interaction, this was seen to be unhelpfully

onerous:

… we are always being told … if you talk about something, note it down,

note it down. I said, well if we did that, we'd be here all day, noting things

down …

Departmental Supporter

One probationer found the format of the Interim Profile limiting and couldn't see the

purpose of keeping careful records if they were not going to feature in the official

assessment:

I had written up notes on all the meetings that we had had and I've got a

folder with pages and then we get this form and it's like, 'so why have I

been keeping this folder, what's the point? It seems a bit strange.

Probationer

Finally, one probationer questioned whether paperwork actually provided any evidence

of learning:

I think at the start you are really worried and you want to … 'I'd better

note this down, I'd better note this down', but now it is like, as long as

you're learning things … there's not much you can show on a bit of paper

what you are actually taking in.

Probationer

ISSUES

There are several issues that we suggest emerge from these findings. The first con-

cerns the considerable variability that still exists in the experiences of new teachers.

A range of 4–15 observations from our small sample of probationers indicates that

there is no consensus yet about the optimum number of observations. Even allowing

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THE NEW TEACHER INDUCTION SCHEME IN SCOTLAND

404

for individual differences, this is a wide range. It is also disquieting that even small

numbers of probationers feel that observation was not useful for their development.

Training for supporters in observation and feedback is an identified need. Good prac-

tice in observation, as identified in this study, could inform the training for mentors

and supporters provided by Authorities.

There are differences too in the focus of support as shown by the comments on

observation and assessment. The 'crit' mentality of proving competence in artifi-

cially perfect lessons is still in evidence. Many probationers report constructive, sup-

portive and completely developmental relationships but some still report high levels

of anxiety as they prepare to be assessed in an observed lesson. It may be that such

nervousness is inevitable, but it also carries implications for the way in which obser-

vation operates and this potentially links back to training issues.

The second has to do with the role of the Standard and the accompanying bureau-

cracy in creating a healthy climate for professional development. There is no doubt

that for some the Standard is proving a useful framework for observation, assessment

and the planning of CPD. However, there is also evidence that some staff and proba-

tioners have not internalised the statements of the Standard nor do they see them as a

useful summary of professional competence. The late arrival of documentation and

the somewhat elevated tone of the document may have been contributory factors to

this state of affairs. The complexity of the documentation and the need for written

evidence has led to two potentially unhelpful responses to this approach to teacher

development. The first is to make filling in the forms the focus of the activity, lead-

ing to real dangers of losing sight of their intended role in supporting effective reflec-

tion. In this response, efficiency becomes the successful production of documentation,

rather than real engagement with the issues of teaching and learning. The second is

to dismiss the requirement to be rigorous in recording one's CPD since writing

something down does not prove you have learnt it. Teachers who begin their career

with this view may come to regard CPD as little more than a ' box ticking' exercise,

rather than as a vital element of their professional experience. Furthermore, the range

of developmental experiences recommended, which go well beyond observation, is

likely to generate a mix of development. However, within the current scheme, pro-

fessional development which goes outside or beyond the Standard (and its associated

'boxes') may be in danger of being overlooked. There is thus a danger that acknowl-

edged professional development follows a script rather than an individual trajectory.

In a pronounced climate of accountability, a bureaucratised developmental map may

be no surprise but it is nonetheless a matter of concern for two reasons. First, it may

result in a narrowed conception of what counts as development and second, it offers

little scope for individual patterns of development, although it is clear that new teach-

ers are not all at the same stage when they qualify, nor do they progress with equal

speed once in post.

Finally we should record that the later part of probation was overshadowed for

many by uncertainty about finding work in teaching after the end of the induction

year. This may have contributed to the pressure to be seen to be competent in order to

increase the chances of future employment and may have distracted attention from

JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

development in a similar way to that which was found earlier for those completing

probation through supply work.

FINAL COMMENT

Somewhat similar induction arrangements were introduced in England and Kyriacou

and O'Connor (2003) have reported on the experiences of newly qualified primary

teachers in their new induction system. They identified five key issues: the timing of

the arrangements, the reduced timetable, funding, the support system and the new

career entry profiles. They found schools had too little time to prepare for the new

induction system, the provision of a reduced timetable was not consistent and some

new teachers benefited from this and some did not, funding arrangements were

unclear, the support system suffered from lack of training and clarity about the role of

mentors and assessors and the career entry profile intended to be central to the transi-

tion to teaching was little used in practice. The issues of speed of implementation and

lack of time for full preparation for the new arrangements, of variability in the release

from classroom responsibilities and of training for supporters and lack of clarity about

roles all arose in the Scottish study as a whole and should give food for thought to

those who set implementation timetables. There is a danger that inadequate prepara-

tion may damage the reception and reputation of worthy and welcome innovations!

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

While many probationers reported that opportunities for development had been pro-

vided during their probationary year, for at least some their capacity to make the most

of these opportunities had been undermined by the complex administrative require-

ments of the Scheme. Many probationers felt that there was a considerable emphasis

on proving that they were meeting the requirements of the Scheme even though the

tenor of the majority of the probationers' responses is positive in terms of develop-

mental outcomes from their year of induction. One of the concerns which does, how-

ever, arise from the findings we have reported relates to the models and expectations

that teachers are developing about their own professional development. The question

is whether or not professional development is seen to be merely fitting in with exter-

nally set criteria or whether the development of an individual style is feasible. While

the Standard may provide a useful scaffold for professional development, it could

potentially become a strait jacket, restricting the professional development opportu-

nities open to teachers. While the Scheme may ensure a base line of support, there is

a danger that the framework, with its associated paperwork, becomes a script for

development and ultimately restrictive, rather than constructive.

REFERENCES

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Bleach, K. (1999) The Induction and Mentoring of Newly Qualified Teachers. London: David Fulton.

Bullough, R. (1989) First-Year Teacher: a Case Study. New York: Teachers College Press.

Christie, F., Draper, J. and O'Brien, J. (2003) A Study of the Induction Scheme for Beginning Secondary

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Draper, J., Fraser, H., Smith, D. and Taylor, W. (1991) A Study of Probationers . Edinburgh: Moray House

Institute of Education, Heriot-Watt University.

Draper, J., Fraser, H. and Taylor, W. (1993) Assessing Probationers: an Opportunity for Professional

Development. Edinburgh: General Teaching Council Scotland.

Draper, J., Fraser, H. and Taylor, W. (1997a) Teachers at Work: Early Experiences of Professional

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Draper, J., Fraser, H., Raab, A. and Taylor, W. (1997b) Probationers on Supply . Edinburgh: University of

Edinburgh/General Teaching Council Scotland.

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Report of the Committee of Inquiry into professional conditions of service of teachers. (The

'McCrone' report). Edinburgh: SEED.

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JANET DRAPER, FIONA CHRISTIE AND JIM O'BRIEN

SECTION FIVE

CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS: THE

CHALLENGE TO CHANGE

What is the impact of teacher professional development on student learning outcomes?

This is a critical question asked increasingly often by policy makers, school leadership

teams, teacher professional associations, and many others with a stake in providing

high quality teaching for all students.

Recent work in the Teaching and Learning Research Group at the Australian

Council for Educational Research has explored this critical question in a number of

evaluation studies of teacher professional development (Ingvarson et al., 2005).

There is a logic behind the question, captured very clearly by Supovitz:

The implicit logic of focusing on professional development as a means

for improving student achievement is that high quality professional

development will produce superior teaching in classrooms, which will, in

turn, translate into higher levels of student achievement.

(Supovitz, 2001, p. 81)

This logic underpins many professional development programs, both large scale system

initiatives, and ongoing school level programs.

The critical impact of teaching on student achievement is highlighted when we look

at what research tells us about the major sources of variance in students'achievement.

Hattie, for example, reports that it is teachers who account for about 30% of the

variance. "It is what teachers know, do, and care about which is very powerful in this

learning equation" (Hattie, 2003, p. 2). This provides a powerful argument for focusing

on ways of strengthening teachers' expertise throughout their careers. The quality of

teaching is intrinsically linked to teachers'content knowledge, their knowledge of how

students learn that content, and the effectiveness of classroom teaching practices.

However, despite the logical connection, there is agreement that:

… despite the size of the body of literature, however, relatively little

systematic research has been conducted on the effects of professional

development on improvements in teaching or on student outcomes.

(Garet et al ., 2001, p. 917)

Not only has there been little systematic research, but direct evidence of a link

between professional development and improved learning outcomes remains elusive:

It has been relatively unusual for researchers to investigate the relation-

ships between teachers' and students' learning, and when they did so it

409

MARION MEIERS

27. TEACHER PROFESSIONAL LEARNING,

TEACHING PRACTICE AND STUDENT LEARNING

OUTCOMES: IMPORTANT ISSUES

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 409–414.

410

has been even more unusual to find evidence that teachers' learning

influenced students' learning.

(Cohen and Hill, 2000, p. 329)

There are a number of reasons for the difficulty in finding evidence of the impact of

professional development on student outcomes:

First, there are often incompatibilities between standards-based reform

practices and the assessment instruments used to measure their impact.

Second, there is often poor alignment between the content of what is

taught and what is tested. Third, our impatience for results leads us to

look for impacts too soon, rather than allowing effects to accumulate.

Fourth, our models relating teaching practice to student achievement

may not include crucial environmental specifications. Finally, reformers'

specifications of professional development may not be precise enough to

powerfully impact student achievement

(Supovitz, 2001, p. 95).

Supovitz has highlighted a set of key practical difficulties. One difficulty lies in the

assessment instruments used to collect evidence of improvements in students'learning.

Common valid measures often focus on a particular set of knowledge and skills,

whereas many professional development initiatives are concerned with broad changes

in curriculum and in teaching practices. Teachers are able to make judgments about

changes in their students' learning outcomes, and to report these judgments, but it is

not easy to measure the improvements they report. A second, related difficulty concerns

the alignment between what is taught and what is tested. It may be that a broader range

of assessment evidence, ranging from the results of standardised tests to observations

and teacher judgments, is required.

Change in teaching practices, and the expansion of teachers'repertoires of practice,

takes place over time, and, as Supovitz points out, it is cumulative, and often connected

to a range of influences on teachers. This has implications for the timing of occasions

when evidence of improved learning is collected, and for what improvements may be

attributed to a particular professional development initiative. The wide range of contex-

tual variations between classrooms add other complicating factors, as does the design of

professional development programs.

Thompson (2003) drew attention to the paucity of research studies in this field:

… remarkably little [writing about professional development] based on

real evidence about the actual impact of professional development on

classroom practice and student performance … a handful of recent

research studies … provide some persuasive evidence … converge on

several major points …

(Thompson, 2003, p. 1)

MARION MEIERS

Thompson identified some convergence in the research on the characteristics of

effective professional development:

●Focus on subject matter learning

●Link PD to curricular materials and assessment

●Promote 'coherence' and 'active learning'

●…more active learning …, and collective participation

(Thompson, 2003, pp. 1–2)

The convergence in the research evidence about the features of professional develop-

ment that are linked to changes in classroom practice, and to improved student learn-

ing, clearly has implications for the evaluation of professional development.

EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In evaluation studies that investigate the impact of professional development on

teachers' knowledge and practice, and on student achievement, it is necessary to

address the difficulties identified by the research described above. Gusky reminded

us of the different levels at which professional development can be evaluated, ranging

from immediate satisfaction to the impact on student outcomes:

Using five critical levels of evaluation, you can improve your school's

professional development program. But be sure to start with the desired

result – improved student outcomes.

(Guskey, 2002, p. 45)

Opportunities to survey teachers who have participated in professional development

activities some time after the completion of the professional development open up

possibilities for gathering evidence about the impact of the professional development

initiative on changes in teachers' professional knowledge, changes in teaching prac-

tices and improvements in student achievement. Data can be gathered from partici-

pants in professional development at the conclusion of the activity about a number of

aspects: ratings of the program, the facilitators, the venue, and the content of the pro-

gram. At this stage they can also be asked about the extent of new knowledge they

have gained, and the extent to which they anticipate they will review and modify their

current teaching practices. But the actual implementation of changes in classroom

practice takes considerable time, and will develop from reflection on what has been

learnt from the professional development program. So delaying the gathering of

responses for some months makes it possible to tap into information about the

longer-term impact of professional development.

Written questionnaires, in print or electronic form, provide useful tools for surveys

of the long-term effects of the professional development. A range of questions can

be asked about the impact of teachers' involvement in a professional development

411

IMPORTANT ISSUES IN TEACHING

412

program. Responses to such questions, gathered from a large proportion of the

participants, can be collated to help to build a picture of the effectiveness of the

professional development in improving the quality of teaching and opportunities for

student learning.

Following the chain of logic linking changes in professional knowledge to changes

in practices and finally to changes in student learning outcomes, it is appropriate to

ask questions about professional knowledge. These may be framed as general questions

about knowledge of content or teaching strategies, asking respondents to indicate the

extent to which, as a result of their participation in the professional development

activities, they now have:

●increased knowledge of the content that they teach

●increased knowledge of teaching and learning strategies appropriate to the content

that they teach.

Questions about new professional knowledge can be more specific, reflecting the

particular subject context and purposes of the professional development program. If the

purpose of the professional development program was to enable teachers to integrate

knowledge and skills about information communication technology into their teaching

practice, a relevant question would be about the extent to which respondents knew

more about:

●integrating information communication technology knowledge and skills into

teaching practice

If the focus of the program was on new ways of identifying the mathematical strategies

that students use, the questions would be about the extent to which the respondent

knew more about:

●identifying the mathematical strategies that students use.

In relation to a professional development program about more explicit teaching of

literacy in all subject areas in Years 7–10, teachers could be asked about the extent to

which the program provided them with new knowledge about literacy learning in

their subject area, and how to take account of the literacy demands of the subject area

in planning teaching and learning activities.

Such questions prompt reflection on the professional learning opportunities expe-

rienced in the workshops and activities during the program, and further reflection,

after a reasonable period of time, about the respondents' own professional learning.

The second link in the logic chain concerns the impact of the professional devel-

opment program on teaching practice. Sometimes this impact involves new ways of

doing things, but often the intended impact is related to expanding teachers' reper-

toires of practice so that they are better able to meet the needs of the diverse range of

students they teach.

These questions can be framed in generic terms, asking about the extent of change

in how respondents:

●use teaching and learning strategies that are more challenging and engaging

●make clearer links between teaching goals and classroom activities.

They can also be specifically linked to the intended purpose of the professional

development program, and ask respondents to reflect on the extent to which, as a

MARION MEIERS

result of their participation in that professional development program, they

●use more hands on activities in teaching numeracy; or

●access the internet for research purposes; or

●use more effective methods to assess students'literacy development

Guskey's emphatic reminder that evaluations should look at the impact of profes-

sional development programs on student outcomes requires attention to ways in

which evidence of such change can be collected. Testing can provide some evidence,

but as already discussed, the alignment, scope and timing of testing are complex

issues. Teachers' own judgments about their students' learning constitute another

valid source of evidence. If sufficient time has elapsed between the completion of the

professional development program to allow participants to reflect on and implement

the content and strategies promoted by the program, it is then reasonable to ask them

to make judgments about the impact on their students' learning of aspects of their

teaching that have been strengthened or changed.

Questions about these judgments can be generic, asking about the extent to which

respondents judge that their students:

●are more actively engaged in learning activities; or

●make better use of the feedback/assessment that they are given; or

●have fewer difficulties in understanding the content that they are learning.

Where possible, more precise evidence can be collected by asking teachers about

their observations of improved learning of knowledge and skills that were the focus

of the professional development program. Specific questions can be asked about the

extent to which they have observed that their students:

●access email to communicate with other students; or

●are more confident in independently accessing and processing information; or

●are more engaged in mathematical investigations; or

●use more effective mental computation strategies.

Anecdotal evidence of teachers' perceptions of improved student learning can be

gathered from interviews with teachers who have participated in professional devel-

opment programs. Such interviews provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on

what they have observed, and to respond in more detail than is possible through a

written questionnaire.

Interviews can yield insights about changes in students' approaches to mathematics.

One teacher described how she and her colleagues had introduced much more dis-

cussion and explanation into their mathematics classrooms. She commented about

how the students "get a deeper understanding from all the talking and explaining we

do. They don't just say the answer any more".

A teacher who had participated in a professional development program that provided

teachers with many strategies to expand students'reading skills, especially in key learn-

ing areas other than English reported that she could confidently say that her class had …

… progressed from being basically very good technical readers to very

capable text users and integrate their reading skills into other learning

areas by being text users. This is evident by the progress noticeable in

413

IMPORTANT ISSUES IN TEACHING

414

their workbooks and their ability to use their reading skills to prepare

presentations on given topics, writing reports …

CONCLUSIONS

More is now understood about what constitutes effective professional development,

and about the links between such professional development, changes in teachers'

knowledge and practice, and improved learning outcomes. This has implications for

evaluations of teacher professional development programs. It also has implications for

the timing of evaluation questionnaires, and for the nature of information collected in

those evaluations.

Testing can sometimes provide information about changes in student learning out-

comes attributable to a professional development program. Other sources of information

also provide significant insights. Evaluation questionnaires can be designed to elicit

teachers' reflections on their own practice over a period of time following their

participation in a professional development program, and their judgments about

improved student learning. Interviews with teachers can also prompt reflection on

practice and student outcomes.

When teachers are asked questions about the impact of a professional development

program on their own professional knowledge and practice, and about their students'

learning, over time, important evaluative data is generated. The impact of professional

development could be enhanced by encouraging teachers to document their practice,

and their observations and judgments about student learning over time. The reflection

involved in a process of documentation can contribute to career-long professional

learning.

REFERENCES

Cohen, D. K. and Hill, H. C. (2000) Instructional Policy and Classroom Performance: The Mathematics

Reform in California, Teachers College Record, vol. 102, 2, pp. 294–343.

Garet, M. S. Porter, A. Desimone, L. Birman, B. F. and Yoon, K. S. (2001) What Makes Professional

Development Effective? Results From a National Sample of Teachers. American Educational

Research Journal, vol. 38, pp. 915–945.

Guskey, T. R. (2002) Does It Make a Difference? Evaluating Professional Development. Educational

Leadership, vol. 59, 6, pp. 45–51.

Hattie, J. (2003) What are the Attributes of Excellent Teachers? Paper presented at Research Conference

2003: Building Teacher Quality. Melbourne: ACER Available on the web at http://www.acer.edu.

au/workshops/documents/Teachers_Make_a_Difference_Hattoe.pdf.

Ingvarson, L., Meiers, M. and Beavis, A. (2005, January 29). Factors affecting the impact of professional

development programs on teachers' knowledge, practice, student outcomes and efficacy.

Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(10). http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v13n10/.

Supovitz, J. (2001). Translating teaching practice into improved student achievement. In Fuhrman, S. (ed).

From the Capitol to the Classroom. Standards-Based Reforms in the States. The one hundredth

yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part Two Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, pp. 81–98.

Thompson, Charles L. (2003) Improving Student Performance through Professional Development for

Teachers. Executive Summary, First in America Special Report, NC Education Research Council.

Available on the web at http://erc.northcarolina.edu.docs/publications/Professional%20

Development520Exec%20Sum.pdf.

MARION MEIERS

INTRODUCTION

Teaching is a complex and demanding professional task. The success of teachers in

their work has direct implications for the quality of learning of their students.

Nevertheless, given this complexity, achieving success in teaching cannot be guaranteed

in all cases. Consequently, it is important to identify the factors which either facilitate

or hinder teacher success with a view to organizing supporting contexts which would

be conducive to teacher success, as well as to developing appropriate policies.

Based on their research interest and their backgrounds in the professional develop-

ment of teachers, the authors of this study have sought to investigate teacher success

in Hong Kong. Specifically, the study aims to achieve the following objectives:

●to acquire an initial understanding of how Hong Kong teachers conceptualize

teacher success;

●to identify the factors hindering teacher success;

●to study the relationship between professional development and teacher success.

DEFINING TEACHER SUCCESS

When compared with other outcomes such as job adjustment and job satisfaction, the

concept of "Teacher Success" has been relatively less studied and reported on in the

literature. Teacher success can be described as the sense of achievement which teachers

obtain from their work and few studies directly studying this concept can be identified.

Some research (e.g. Peterson, 1979; Burden, 1990) has reported on "changes" that

occur during a teacher's career. These can include job events such as promotion, or

being assigned additional professional responsibilities. In the course of their career,

teachers will also acquire skills, knowledge and new patterns of behaviour, for example

concerning teaching methods and relationships with students. In addition, their atti-

tudes, expectations and concerns (such as commitment to teaching, job satisfaction

and teacher concerns), if channelled in a positive direction, can be used as possible

indicators of teacher success. In Hong Kong, Cheung's (2001) local study of the "best

year of teaching" in various teachers' careers also revealed that a good relationship

with the students, the students' academic success and good learning attitudes, the

teachers' own performances and the recognition they received are key elements

related to teacher success. In 1998, Dr. K.C. Pang, chaired a group of experienced

principals in a Quality Education Fund (QEF) Task Group. This Task Group was set

up to develop criteria for the selection of teachers for the QEF's Outstanding Teachers

415

CHENG MAY HUNG, AU KIT OI,

PANG KING CHEE AND CHEUNG LAI MAN

28. DEFINING THE MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS

IN HONG KONG

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 415–432.

416

Award (Quality Education Fund Steering Committee, 1998). It developed a frame-

work of criteria for the selection of outstanding teachers, after extensive consultation

with the profession in Hong Kong, and these could also provide some indication of

the aspects which should be taken into account when addressing teacher success.

Five criteria are included in this framework, namely:

●professionalism,

●teaching,

●student development,

●school development, and

●contribution to the education sector/community.

A total of 19 criteria were identified for the selection of outstanding teachers in

Hong Kong.

Another focus of the study is to identify those factors which either facilitate or hinder

the development of teacher success. Some researchers have attempted to identify the

factors that influence a teacher's feeling of success. The findings of many other studies

concerning the professional development and leadership of teachers may also be

relevant for this study. Earlier work investigating the experience of new teachers in Hong

Kong (Pang, 1990) has identified some factors which influenced their perception of

success. These included personal factors (such as their training, personality and teacher

competence), environmental factors (such as the nature of the classes taught, the pupils'

discipline, pupils' quality and motivation, and the school administration and support), as

well as interaction factors (such as the pupils' results in assignments and examinations,

and the relationship with pupils) (Pang, 1990). Nias (1989) also signalled the impor-

tance of the out-of-school groups (family, friends and ex-tutors) for reinforcing the

individual's self-image as a teacher or a competent professional. Though literature deal-

ing specifically with the factors affecting teacher success is scarce, studies on factors

affecting related aspects are plentiful and can provide useful reference material. For

example, studies on the degree of satisfaction felt by teachers revealed that the key

factors were related to the students (quality, relationship and recognition), to promotion,

to relationships with colleagues, to recognition from peers and from the Principal, and to

a sense of being effective and competent (Cheung, 2001). Earlier, Churchill et al. (1995)

had also identified gender and changing educational management as factors which

affected teacher satisfaction. Based on a three-stage case study of teacher leadership

(Zinn, 1997), internal factors (including intellectual and psycho-social factors) and

external factors (including significant sources of support such as a network of

colleagues, administrative support, and support from family and friends) are identified.

These factors are found to influence in turn the time and commitment that teachers will

dedicate to their professional development. In an attempt to identify the support that

teachers need in order to play their roles successfully, O'Connor and Boles (1992) sug-

gested that teachers needed to have a more complete understanding of the politics of

schools. They also needed to acquire increased power and authority, develop better

interpersonal relationships, and develop good communication skills in group dynamics,

as well as presentation skills and organizational skills.

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

Though their influence is indirect, the factors which affect a teacher's profes-

sional development and the development of professionalism can also provide some

insight into other possible factors which affect teacher success and can serve as

useful background reference for this part of the study. Ashburn's (1987) study estab-

lished that the professional development of teachers is dependent on a number of

circumstances: the length of time they have spent in teaching, their conception of

the teacher's role, and the context within which they are teaching, including the

characteristics of each individual school. Calderhead and Shorrock (1997), in their

study on the professional development of beginning teachers, also pointed out the

importance of "teachers' experience from the past" on which they draw when

making judgments and drawing inferences about the nature of teaching and teach-

ing practices. Cheung (2001), in a local study on teachers' careers, identified a

number of influences that contribute to the evolution of a teacher's career. These

include: family background, pre-professional life experiences, the perceived work-

load, the students, colleagues and principal in each school, changes in job responsi-

bilities, professional development, recognition received, as well as educational

changes and policies in the macro-environment. In addition, in studying the attrib-

utes for teaching professionalism, Goodson and Hargreaves (1996) have identified

the importance of the following:

●Increased opportunity and responsibility for exercising discretionary judgment

over issues of teaching, the curriculum and the care that affects one's students;

●Opportunities and expectations to engage with the moral and social purposes and

value of what teachers teach, along with major curriculum and assessment matters

in which these purposes are embedded;

●Commitment to working with colleagues in a collaborative environment which

provides help and support as a way of sharing expertise to solve ongoing problems

of professional practice, rather than having to engage in joint work as a motivational

device to implement external mandates imposed by others;

●A self-directed search and struggle for continuous learning corresponding to one's

own expertise and standards of practice, rather than having to comply with the

enervating obligations of endless change demanded by others.

Apart from describing how the teacher's attitude may influence that teacher's profes-

sionalism, these findings also reflect the significance of the provision of adequate

professional development opportunities for enhancing teacher professionalism. The

third point draws attention to the particular importance of providing opportunities for

teachers to be involved in collaborative work.

In sum, these studies on teacher satisfaction, professional development and

leadership have identified a variety of factors related to the teachers themselves.

These arise from their personal background, their school, their colleagues, their

students and their work, as well as the professional development opportunities avail-

able to them which could have an influence on their success. Altogether they consti-

tute a useful source of reference for this study in identifying factors affecting teacher

success.

417

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

418

METHOD

The study was undertaken in two phases, in which the question was approached from

the qualitative and the quantitative point of view. Phase one involved a qualitative

study according to the objectives of the research by means of interviews with nine

primary and nine secondary teachers in Hong Kong in order to acquire some in-depth

understanding of the topic under study. These were all teachers who had received the

Outstanding Teachers' Award in the years 1998 to 2002. The teachers chosen had

different backgrounds, with respect to their type of school, age, and category of

experience. The data were analysed using qualitative analysis methods such as the

constant comparative. This phase provided an initial picture of the concept of success

as perceived by the teachers, and the factors facilitating or hindering them, as well as

the effects of professional development on teacher success. The following questions

were used during the interviews in the first phase of the study.

●What is a successful teacher?

●How successful are you? (The teachers were invited to provide their own rating of

their performance in different aspects of their work which they considered important,

e.g. professional knowledge, skills, attitudes, commitment, relationship with stu-

dents, administrative competence, contributions to the school and the profession etc.)

●What has facilitated your success as a teacher?

●What has hindered your success as a teacher?

●Has your previous professional development experience influenced your degree

of success? If so, how?

In phase two, a quantitative approach was adopted with the aim of providing a clearer

picture of the concept of success, the factors influencing success, and the relationship

between success and professional development, on the basis of a wider group of

participants. In this phase, the findings from the previous phase were tested on a

wider sample, consisting of about 500 primary and secondary teachers drawn from

50 schools, to further explore the concepts and factors which are commonly perceived

by teachers, as well as the relationship of success to professional development. For

this purpose, a questionnaire was constructed based on the findings from phase one.

To facilitate the analysis, data was collected concerning the relevant background

variables, including the teacher's gender, teaching experience (years in teaching and out

of teaching), qualifications, subjects taught, position in school, other work experience,

and pre-service and in-service education.

Data collected by means of the questionnaire were analysed using the SPSS

software, involving the use of frequency counts, sorting, means, and correlation

analyses as appropriate.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter reports mainly on the findings from the second phase of the study. From

the original sample of 50 schools, 334 teachers from 40 schools completed the ques-

tionnaire, a response rate of 67.8%. Of these responses, 190 were from primary

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

school teachers and 144 from secondary school teachers, and 60 of them were teach-

ing in government schools, 211 in aided schools, 16 in direct subsidy scheme schools

and 50 in private schools (Table 28.1). Most of them (330) had received teacher

education and 172 of them held a Bachelor's degree. Sixty-six teachers were in their

first five years of teaching, 106 teachers were in their fifth to tenth years of teaching

and 67 teachers had between 11 and 15 years of teaching experience. This distribu-

tion of respondents is a fair reflection of the Hong Kong context in which the teacher

population is largely female, there are more primary than secondary schools, the

majority of schools belong to the aided category in terms of funding support, and a

high percentage of teachers have received teacher education or hold a Bachelor's

degree. However, the distribution by the number of years of teaching experience

shows a relatively larger number of respondents who have between 5 and 10 years of

teaching experience.

This paper describes the analysis of the data relating to the first three research objec-

tives, namely to describe how the teachers conceptualize teacher success, and to identify

the factors facilitating teacher success and the factors hindering teacher success.

419

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

TABLE 28.1 Demographic information on the respondents

Number of

respondents

Gender

Male 111

Female 229

School taught

Primary school 190

Secondary school 144

Type of schools teaching

Government 60

Aided 211

Direct subsidy scheme 16

Private 50

Respondents who had received teacher training

Yes 330

No 6

Teaching experience (as at August 2003)

Less than 5 years 66

5–10 years 106

11–15 years 67

16–20 years 35

21 years or above 63

Academic qualifications

Certificate of Education 52

Bachelor degree 172

Master degree 43

Doctoral degree 1

Other 1

420

THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF TEACHER SUCCESS

The questionnaire covered three types of factors that constitute teachers'perceptions

of teacher success, namely personal factors, professional factors and environmental

factors. The items in the questionnaire were developed on the basis of the interview

findings in phase one of the study as well as from the literature review. Respondents

were invited to rate the importance of the items listed using a scale of 1 to 5, in which

5 represented, the most important and 1 represented the least important.

In general, the teachers agreed that all the nine items included under personal factors

in the questionnaire were important for their perception of teacher success (Table 28.2).

The mean values of the items were quite high, ranging from 4.5 to 4.79. Taking all the

responses together, responsible (4.79), caring for students (4.73) and self-reflection

(4.63), were the three items that received the highest mean value. If the responses

from the primary and the secondary teachers are compared using a one-way ANOVA

test, the results suggest that the primary teachers rated three items significantly

higher than did the secondary teachers. These items were: mission-minded, attach

importance to moral education, and not giving up easily when facing adversities.

The 17 items included under professional factors were also perceived to be impor-

tant by the teachers (Table 28.3). The overall mean value of the items ranged from

4.12 to 4.69. The three items that received the highest mean value were: thoroughly

understand the teaching subject (4.69), being a role model for students (4.68) and

enthusiasm for teaching (4.62). If the responses from the primary and the secondary

teachers are compared, the pattern for the three items that received the highest mean

value differs. In the responses from the primary teachers, being a role model for stu-

dents (4.74), enthusiasm for teaching (4.71), and thoroughly understand the teaching

subject (4.68) received the highest mean values. In the responses from the secondary

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

TABLE 28.2 Personal factors

Primary teachers Secondary teachers

N 190 N  144

Overall

Mean Std. Std.

Personal factors N  343 Mean deviation Mean deviation T-value

Responsible 4.79 4.81 0.55 4.77 0.59 0.55

Caring for students 4.73 4.76 0.58 4.68 0.64 1.15

Self-reflection 4.63 4.68 0.61 4.56 0.71 1.67

Mission-minded 4.58 4.65 0.65 4.49 0.69 2.19*

Respectfulness 4.58 4.59 0.62 4.55 0.63 0.64

Attach importance to 4.57 4.65 0.61 4.46 0.64 2.73**

moral education

Patience 4.55 4.58 0.62 4.50 0.67 1.12

Being fair 4.54 4.59 0.64 4.47 0.69 1.53

Not giving up easily when 4.50 4.61 0.63 4.34 0.70 3.65***

facing adversities

*p 0.05 **p 0.01 ***p 0.001.

421

TABLE 28.3 Professional factors

Primary teachers Secondary teachers

Overall N190 N 144

Mean Mean Std. Mean Std.

Professional factors N  343 deviation deviation T-value

Thoroughly understanding 4.69 4.68 0.58 4.70 0.56 0.27

the teaching subject

Being a role model for 4.68 4.74 0.57 4.58 0.70 2.21*

students

Enthusiasm for teaching 4.62 4.71 0.62 4.51 0.69 2.75**

Teaching students both 4.55 4.64 0.63 4.40 0.66 3.34***

subject knowledge and

interpersonal attitudes

Clear and in-depth delivery 4.55 4.56 0.68 4.53 0.63 0.50

of lessons

Effectively managing the 4.49 4.56 0.63 4.39 0.69 2.29*

classroom

Never ceasing to improve 4.48 4.52 0.66 4.42 0.65 1.40

ways of teaching and

classroom management

Making use of various 4.44 4.48 0.69 4.37 0.68 1.47

teaching skills to arouse

students' learning interest

Teaching in a lively and 4.43 4.49 0.71 4.35 0.66 1.94

interesting way to enhance

students' understanding

Basing teaching on students' 4.43 4.45 0.69 4.40 0.66 0.69

abilities

Holding individual teaching 4.40 4.45 0.69 4.33 0.67 1.60

belief

Lifelong learning, never 4.36 4.46 0.70 4.23 0.67 3.09***

ceasing to improve

Thinking critically 4.31 4.38 0.73 4.20 0.66 2.29*

Understanding and fitting in 4.29 4.39 0.68 4.15 0.60 3.39***

the needs of colleagues

Willing to face new 4.22 4.28 0.74 4.11 0.69 2.15*

challenges

Grasping opportunities and 4.18 4.23 0.71 4.09 0.71 1.82

making good use of

resources

Having close contact with 4.12 4.27 0.66 3.91 0.72 4.75***

parents

*p 0.05 **p 0.01 ***p 0.001.

422

teachers, thoroughly understand the teaching subject (4.70), being a role model

(4.58), and clear in-depth delivery of the lesson (4.53) received the highest mean

values. This difference suggests that the secondary teachers put more emphasis on

teaching the subject matter while the primary teachers regarded being a role model

and having enthusiasm in teaching to be more important than teaching the subject

matter. If the responses from the primary and the secondary teachers are compared

using a one-way ANOVA test, the results suggest that the primary teachers rated nine

items to be significantly more important than did the secondary teachers. These

items were: understanding and fitting in the needs of colleagues, making close

contact with parents, being a role model for students, teaching students both subject

knowledge and interpersonal attitudes, lifelong learning, never ceasing to improve,

thinking critically, willing to face new challenges, and effectively managing the

classroom.

Five of the 6 items under environmental factors were also perceived to be impor-

tant by the teachers (Table 28.4). These 5 items had a mean value ranging from 4.23

to 4.52. The item "Influence of former teachers" received a lower rating at 3.43 mean-

ing that teachers perceived this as being comparatively less important in influencing

teacher success. The three items that received the highest mean values were principal's

support (4.52), colleagues' collaboration and encouragement (4.44), and students'

positive feedback about teaching methods (4.38). If the responses from the primary

and the secondary teachers are compared using a one-way ANOVA test, the results

suggest that the primary teachers rated four items to be significantly more important

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

TABLE 28.4 Environmental factors

Primary teachers Secondary teachers

N 188 N  144

Mean Std. Std.

Environmental factors N  341 Mean deviation Mean deviation T-value

Principal's support 4.52 4.61 0.68 4.40 0.72 2.79**

(including the provision of

resources and

opportunities)

Colleagues' collaboration 4.44 4.51 0.70 4.33 0.68 2.32*

and encouragement (e.g.

sharing teaching

experience)

Students' positive feedback 4.38 4.46 0.68 4.27 0.70 2.51**

about teaching methods

Parents' support 4.24 4.46 0.72 3.94 0.80 6.30***

Good working 4.23 4.28 0.74 4.16 0.65 1.52

environment

Influence of former 3.43 3.45 1.00 3.38 0.84 0.78

teachers

*p 0.05 **p 0.01 ***p 0.001.

than did the secondary teachers. These items were: principal's support (including the

provision of resources and opportunities), colleagues'collaboration and encouragement

(e.g. sharing teaching experience), parents' support and students' positive feedback

about teaching methods.

The first phase of the study identified three groups of factors (personal, professional

and environmental) to describe teacher success in the Hong Kong context. The items

included in the questionnaire received high ratings from the respondents, thus indi-

cating the teachers' recognition and support of the list of factors for describing

teacher success. Figure 28.1 summarizes the three groups of factors, namely, personal,

professional and environmental. The findings from the questionnaire have shown the

three most important factors in each category. In the group of personal factors, the

findings suggest that being responsible, having a caring attitude and self-reflection

are the three most important factors. The description of successful teachers as respon-

sible teachers is in line with findings in the literature. Stroot et al. (1998) suggested that

effective and successful teachers need to demonstrate commitment to teaching by

accepting responsibility for pupil learning and behaviour. Moreover, Ilmer Snyder,

Erbaugh, and et al. (1997), and LeBlanc and Skelton (1997) identified positive moti-

vation as an intrinsic characteristic for successful teachers and teacher leadership.

Positive motivation (Ilmer et al ., 1997) was defined as being open-minded, concerned

about their attitudes and being in a position to impart positive and constructive

423

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

Professional

– Thoroughly understand

teaching subject

– Role model for students

– Enthusiasm for teaching

Factors contributing to teacher success

Environment

– Principal's support

– Colleagues' collaboration

and encouragement

– Students' positive feedback

about teaching methods

Personal

– Responsible

– Caring for students

– Self-reflection

Figure 28.1. The conceptualization of teacher success

424

attitudes to the students. The argument that having a caring attitude is important as a

personal attribute for successful teachers is consistent with other research findings.

Tamblyn (2000) found that teachers who displayed qualities such as caring, warmth

and enthusiasm to all staff and students were likely to be successful teachers. The

importance of self-reflection was also supported by the findings in other literature on

teacher education (Stroot et al., 1998; Loving & Graham, 1997). These studies

showed that effective and successful teachers need to be able to evaluate their own

instructional effectiveness, with the aim of further improving their teaching over time.

In the group of professional factors, having a thorough understanding of the

subject matter, being a role model for students and having an enthusiasm for teaching

were found to be the three most important factors. The importance of having a thorough

understanding of the subject matter is echoed by other studies on teacher education

(Ilmer et al ., 1997; Stroot et al., 1998). Ilmer et.al. (1997) further suggest that the

teachers' competence in the subject matter enables them to focus on other aspects

influencing student learning, such as culture, the students' needs, and classroom

dynamics. Stroot et al. (1998) extended the definition of subject matter preparation

for successful teachers to include a vast repertoire of instructional strategies and

techniques related to the teaching of the subject. Functioning as a role model as a

factor for teacher success is specific to the Hong Kong context and it is not identified

as such in studies in other countries.

The three most important factors in the environmental domain include the prin-

cipal's support, collaboration with colleagues and positive feedback from students

about teaching methods. The California Commission on Teacher Credentialing and

California Department of Education (1992) highlighted the importance of support

from Principals and experienced teachers. This may take the form of emotional

support and the provision of professional advice and assistance to facilitate teacher

success. In Hong Kong in recent years there has arisen an increasing need for

teachers to collaborate in schools. Since the Hong Kong education reform was

launched in 2001, it has become more necessary for teachers to collaborate so as to

strengthen the efforts to launch innovations in teaching. The responses reported

here reflect the expectations as well as the common understanding among the

teachers about the importance of collaboration for achieving teacher success. The

third factor, positive feedback from students about the teaching methods adopted,

is consistent with the literature on teacher concerns. Parsons and Fuller (1974)

found that teachers are concerned about self as a teacher, teaching methods and

their impact on students. Murray (1985) revealed a shift in concerns in the course

of the teacher education programme. The result of the survey shows that the

concerns of the teachers shifted from being self-focused to being task-oriented and

then to considering the impact they had on the students, and that this evolution

reflected the growth in the professional maturity of teachers. Consistent with this

trend, the findings in this study suggest that teachers consider that the standard of

their teaching and its impact on the students can be used as indicators of teacher

success.

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

FACTORS THAT MAY HINDER TEACHER SUCCESS

The second part of the questionnaire invited the teachers to rate the importance of

12 factors that may hinder teacher success. The three factors that received the highest

mean value ratings were: heavy workload (4.63), ineffective school management

policy and system (4.19), and insufficient school resources (4.02) (Table 28.5). The

ranking of these three items was the same among both the primary and the secondary

school teachers. Of the 12 factors, 3 received a rating of higher than 4, namely: heavy

425

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

TABLE 28.5 Factors hindering teacher success

Primary teachers Secondary teachers

Overall N189 N 144

mean Std. Std.

Factors N  342 Mean deviation Mean deviation T-value

Heavy workload (having 4.63 4.69 0.66 4.56 0.75 1.75

to handle non-teaching

duties such as organizing

extra-curricular activities

and counselling besides

teaching)

Ineffective school 4.19 4.24 0.78 4.13 0.74 1.27

management policy and

system

Insufficient school 4.02 4.08 0.81 3.95 0.74 1.54

resources (funding and

facilities)

Insufficient channels for 3.96 4.04 0.78 3.84 0.73 2.35*

discussing problems faced

among colleagues

Not being open to 3.96 4.03 0.69 3.87 0.72 2.10*

colleagues' ideas

Conservative school 3.93 3.97 0.76 3.88 0.84 1.03

culture

Declining social status of 3.91 4.01 0.93 3.81 0.87 1.98*

teachers

Not being open to 3.90 3.97 0.67 3.82 0.73 1.92

something new

Insufficient teaching 3.82 3.93 0.89 3.68 0.84 2.61**

experience

Lacking in-service 3.76 3.86 0.88 3.63 0.89 2.43*

professional training

Lacking pre-service 3.74 3.93 0.90 3.50 0.92

4.28***

professional training

Incompetence in 3.33 3.39 0.83 3.26 0.82 1.39

information technology skills

*p 0.05 **p 0.01 ***p 0.001.

426

workload, an ineffective school management policy and system, and insufficient

school resources (Table 28.5). If the responses from the primary and the secondary

teachers are compared using a one-way ANOVA test, the results suggest that the pri-

mary teachers rated six items as being significantly more important than did the

secondary teachers. These items were: insufficient channels for discussing with

colleagues the problems faced, not being open to colleagues' ideas, the declining

social status of teachers, insufficient teaching experience and the lack of pre-service

professional training, and the lack of in-service professional training.

Of the factors that may hinder teacher success, the teachers placed the heavy work-

load at the top of the list. Glatthorn and Fox (1996) suggested some reasons why a

heavy workload may hinder teacher success. In identifying factors that are likely to

result in a higher level of motivation to teach, Glatthorn and Fox (1996) suggested

that quality time should be provided for teachers to plan, produce materials, carry out

active research and interact with each other. Moreover, both in this study and in the

review conducted by Glatthorn and Fox (1996) the need for the provision of quality

resources is essential. Having reviewed the literature on teacher leadership, Harris and

Muijs (2002) compiled a list of factors contributing to successful teacher leadership,

which included support given by the Principal. Support given by the Principal can be

seen as being closely related to the factor of effective school management policy and

system. Therefore, both the support given by the Principal and an effective school

management policy are important factors influencing teacher leadership or success.

THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

TEACHER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

In part three of the questionnaire, the teachers were asked to rate the importance of

different types of teacher development programmes for facilitating teacher success.

The three items that received the highest mean value were: subject knowledge (4.46),

educational psychology (4.10), and increasing self-confidence (4.09) (Table 28.6).

The primary teachers rated increasing self-confidence (4.22) higher than educational

psychology (4.17), which is different from the order of ranking given by the second-

ary teachers. Taking all the responses together, among the ten suggested types of pro-

grammes, three received a rating higher than 4. These were: subject knowledge,

educational psychology and increasing self-confidence (Table 28.6). If the responses

from the primary and the secondary teachers are compared using a one-way ANOVA

test, the results suggest that the primary teachers rated seven items to be significantly

more important than did the secondary teachers. These items were: widening the

range of personal experience and stimulating thinking, educational administration,

educational psychology, mentoring, increasing self-confidence, school-based

curriculum development, and action research.

The need for continuous professional development and effective teacher education

that provides access to new skills and knowledge are also confirmed by Harris and

Muijs (2002) and Glatthorn and Fox (1996). The findings in this part reflected teachers'

specific needs in different areas of professional development which were specific to

the local context and the current situation in education.

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

COMPARING THE RESPONSES FROM THE PRIMARY

AND SECONDARY TEACHERS

Taking the three parts of the questionnaire together, the results of the one-way

ANOVA t-tests suggest that there were significant differences in the mean values

between the primary and the secondary teachers. The ratings from the primary teach-

ers were higher for all the items when significant differences were identified. These

factors are summarised in Figure 28.2. To illustrate this difference, some of the fac-

tors have been grouped into two cate gories, one group arising from the local primary

school context is represented in bold and the other related to the professional status of

the primary teachers in Hong Kong is represented in italics.

The first group of factors include: attaching importance to moral education, making

close contact with parents, teaching students both subject knowledge and interpersonal

attitudes, effectively managing the classroom and parent support. These reflect the

emphasis at the local primary level. The other group of factors include (represented in

italics in Figure 28.2): not giving up easily when facing adversities, the declining

social status of teachers, the lack of pre-service professional training, and the lack of

427

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

TABLE 28.6 The importance of different types of teacher professional development programmes

Primary teachers Secondary teachers

N 190 N  144

Teacher professional Mean Std. Std.

development programmes N  343 Mean deviation Mean deviation T-value

Subject knowledge 4.46 4.46 0.70 4.47 0.68 0.19

Educational psychology 4.10 4.17 0.74 3.99 0.75 2.19*

Increasing self-confidence 4.09 4.22 0.82 3.92 0.74 3.40***

(e.g. EQ training)

Widening the range of 3.99 4.13 0.75 3.80 0.83 3.83***

personal experience and

stimulating thinking (e.g.

general management

course and courses of

teaching thinking)

Knowledge of teaching 3.96 4.01 0.78 3.86 0.83 1.68

theory, pedagogy and

classroom management

Mentoring 3.87 3.99 0.74 3.72 0.76 3.29***

School-based curriculum 3.73 3.88 0.89 3.53 0.78 3.69***

development

Educational administration 3.44 3.55 0.84 3.29 0.74 2.96***

Action research 3.38 3.48 0.92 3.24 0.80 2.56**

Information technology in 3.33 3.39 0.86 3.24 0.83 1.62

education

*p 0.05 **p 0.01 ***p 0.001.

428

in-service professional training. Two factors in this group reflect the teachers'preference

for specific areas of professional development, namely: widening the range of personal

experience and increasing self-confidence. These factors indicate that primary teachers

are more heavily influenced than secondary teachers by the declining social status of

teachers, and the lack of pre-service and in-service training. They recognized the abil-

ity to face adversities positively as a characteristic of teacher success more than did the

secondary teachers. Their perceived need for professional development in the shape of

CHENG MAY HUNG ET AL.

Figure 28.2. Factors contributing to enhancing, and hindering teacher success

Personal factor:

Mission-minded, attach importance to moral education ,

facing adversities with courage and not giving up easily

Professional factor:

Understanding and fitting in the needs of colleagues, making

close contact with parents, being a role model for students,

teaching students both subject knowledge and interpersonal

attitudes, lifelong learning, never ceasing to improve,

thinking critically, willing to face new challenges, and

effectively managing the classroom .

Environment factor:

Principal's support (including the provision of resources and

opportunities), colleagues' collaboration and encouragement

(e.g. sharing teaching experience), parents' support and

students' positive feedback about teaching methods.

Teacher development:

Widening the range of personal experience and

stimulating thinking, educational

administration, education psychology,

mentoring, increasing self-confidence, school-

based curriculum development, and action

research.

Hindering factors:

Insufficient channels for discussing problems faced

among colleagues, not being open to colleagues'

ideas, declining social status of teachers ,

insufficient teaching experience and lacking pre-

service professional training, and lacking in-service

professional training.

Factors affecting

teacher success

Enhancing

Hindering

widening personal experience and increasing self-confidence is also stronger. These

results may be interpreted to mean that there is a lack of self-confidence among the

primary teachers and that they are facing greater difficulty in their work.

CONCLUSION

This study set out to investigate three main aspects concerning teacher success as

follows:

●to acquire an initial understanding of how Hong Kong teachers conceptualize

teacher success;

●to identify the factors hindering teacher success;

●to study the relationship between professional development and teacher success.

Based on this framework, the results in the quantitative part of the study identify the

relative importance of the items within the three groups of factors (personal, profes-

sional and environmental) that contribute to teacher success. The second part of the

study provides information about how teachers ranked the importance of factors

hindering teacher success. The third part of the study identifies the areas of professional

development which would be preferred by teachers. Further study needs to be under-

taken in order to draw conclusions concerning the relationship between professional

development and teacher success.

A number of the factors identified as contributing to teacher success are in line

with the discussion in the literature on teacher leadership and successful teachers.

These factors are: being responsible, caring for students, self-reflection, thorough

understanding of the teaching subject, enthusiasm for teaching, the Principal's support,

collaboration with and encouragement from colleagues, and positive feedback from

students on the teaching methods. The factor stating that teachers need to be role

models for students seems to be peculiar to the local context. Among the factors that

may hinder teacher success, the survey results show that a heavy workload, an inef-

fective school management policy and system and insufficient school resources are

the most detrimental to teacher success. In the literature, a heavy workload is shown

to be directly related to the fact that teachers lack quality time for preparation, while

the school management policy and system is linked to the factor of support from the

school principal. The study identified the needs of the local teachers for professional

development, and that programmes on subject knowledge, educational psychology

and increasing self-confidence came top of the list of such needs. A comparison

between the findings from the primary and the secondary teachers reflects a stronger

feeling among the primary teachers on the importance of those factors where significant

differences are found. The primary teachers seem to be under greater pressure in

their work and declared a stronger need for pre-service and in-service professional

development.

It is obvious from the literature that the qualities or criteria used to define what is

the standard for accomplished or good teachers are usually established by policy-

makers and are used mainly for certification or assessment purposes. The present

research, on the other hand, seeks the views of the practitioners themselves, and provides

429

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

430

useful findings from the professional perspective, thus making a contribution to

knowledge in this area. This study should help policy makers to gain a better under-

standing of the teachers' subjective world. Having this information available con-

cerning the factors that hinder teacher success in Hong Kong, administrators or

policy makers, and teacher educators need to take steps to eliminate these factors or

reduce their effects. Moreover, the provision of adequate preparation time, teacher

education opportunities and programmes that address the needs of the teachers may

favour teacher development. Further study may be needed to identify any discrepancies

between the perceptions of teacher success on the part of teachers and policy makers.

The findings of such a study may provide insights for policy makers, which in turn

should help them to make appropriate decisions when formulating relevant educational

policies for the assessment of teachers' performance.

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431

MEANING OF TEACHER SUCCESS IN HONGKONG

NETWORK LEARNING COMMUNITIES (NLCS)

Network Learning Communities, which had their origin in America, are collaborative

networks of at least six schools and one or more of the following partners: Local

Education Authorities, Higher or Further Education Institutions and community

groups. The English NLC programme started in September 2002 with Networks

receiving up to £50,000 in matched funding (in cash or in kind) a year for 3 years. In

the fourth year and beyond they are expected to be self-supporting.

The National College for School Leadership (NCSL) co-ordinates the NLC

programme and also acts as its principal advocate. It makes a number of grand but as

yet empirically unsubstantiated claims for the effectiveness of NLCs which, it is

argued, are:

●changing the way we think about learning at every level of the education system

(NCSL, 2002, p. 1);

●transforming schools into dynamic learning communities where the latent potential

within pupils, teacher and leaders is unlocked (NCSL, 2002a, p. 2);

●ensuring schools and teachers create and exchange knowledge collaboratively,

continuously and systematically (NCSL, 2002a, p. 7);

●ensuring that adults learn, that schools learn, and that schools learn from one

another, helping all children to become powerful learners (NCSL, 2002a, p. 7).

Such claims form part of a discourse which the NCSL is developing and disseminating.

It contains its own terms, neologisms and concepts such as networked learning, learn-

ing links, learning exchange, network consultancy and inside out change processes.

At the root of the concept of NLCs is the belief that the two types of knowledge, what

we know and what is known (see figure 29.1) through collaborative work or discourse

produce new knowledge that is valuable to teachers, their pupils and schools. The

NCSL literature (Richert et al., 2001; NCSL, 2002) refers to constructivist learning

theory (O'Laughlin, 1992; Prawat, 1992; Airasian and Walsh, 1997). It is of interest

that all these quoted sources are American and that NLCs are a cultural import. There

can, of course, be no doubt that knowledge is socially constructed and defined. What is

open to speculation is whether the setting up of groups of schools/teachers under a

NLC umbrella does, in itself, produce learning and/or knowledge of professional

utility. The NCSL strap line for NLC publicity is 'learning from each other/learning

with each other/ learning on behalf of each other'.

433

IVAN REID, KEVIN BRAIN

AND LOUISE COMERFORD BOYES

29. NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES:

JOINED UP WORKING?

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 433–444.

434

There are three non-negotiable principles of Networked Learning Communities:

●Moral purpose commitment to success for all children (social justice

– 'raising the bar' and 'closing the gap')

●Models of shared leadership for example co-leadership

●Enquiry evidence and data based learning

(NCSL, 2003b, p. 9)

The NLC concept is perhaps encapsulated in the words of Sophie, a year 8 Bradford

school child:

Schools should work together because it's hard working on your own, but if

you work in a team then you get a lot more done and more ideas are put in.

(NCSL, 2002b, p. 4)

The NCSL discourse is based on a number of interconnected themes:

●collaboration: this is argued to be inherently more positive and motivating than

competition. Consequently, collaborative networks are the best vehicle for

encouraging the professional development of teachers and disseminating best

practice. Moreover, collaboration is not simply utilitarian, it is moral, in that NLC

participation is held to be dependent on moral commitment to developing learning

communities;

●networks: seen as a new organisational form which exploit the benefits of

collaboration. They avoid the problems of generating school reform from either a

top down or bottom up approach or individualistic approaches to professional

development;

●six levels of knowledge: are produced through collaboration (see Table 29.1);

IVAN REID ET AL .

Figure 29.1. A model for networked learning

WHAT WE KNOW

The knowledge of those

involved

What practitioners know

WHAT IS KNOWN

The knowledge from

theory, research and best

practice

NEW KNOWLEDGE

The new knowledge that

we can create together

through collaborative

work

(Derived from NCSL 2003b)

●enquiry based practice: NLCs are enquiry and data informed learning environ-

ments. They provide a space in which the knowledge that professionals have, the

publicly available knowledge of theory and research and the knowledge constructed

in the process of collaboration can all be fused to create a continuous process

of reflection, problem solving and knowledge creation; (Derived from NCSL,

2003, p. 10)

●teachers as leaders: NLCs open up spaces in which teachers can lead the develop-

ment of educational knowledge and practice and thus steer the process of educational

restructuring rather than have this process dictated by central government.

NLCs, teaching and the network market

Whatever the novelty of the discourse, NLCs are only one of a range of partnership

based initiatives introduced by the UK New Labour Government. These initiatives

are designed to restructure education, teaching and learning to meet the needs of the

UK's post-industrial knowledge economies. As we have argued in more detail

elsewhere (see Chapter 6 of this volume and Reid et al ., 2004, Reid and Brain 2003)

in pursuing this restructuring the Government has created a network market in edu-

cation. This rests on the retention of the competitive market reforms of previous

Conservative governments and strong central direction over the form and content of

education with new policies aimed at:

●encouraging collaboration between clusters of schools, in order to promote the

development and dissemination of best practice, encourage the sharing of resources

and develop common solutions to educational problems;

●creating new forms of partnerships between schools and other stakeholders in

the private, public and voluntary sectors that will open up schools to sources of

435

NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES

TABLE 29.1 The six levels of learning

Level Process

Pupil learning Raising pupil achievement through developing

specific classroom learning focus

Staff learning and professional NLCs provide spaces for experimentation,

development innovation and developing practice and policy.

Unlike traditional CPD activities NLCs value

practitioner enquiry and collaboration

Leadership for learning Tapping into leadership potential of teachers and

and leadership development providing leadership opportunities e.g. leadership of

NLCs

School-wide learning Schools in NLCs will become learning organizations

which set their own agenda for change and develop

capacity for constant innovation

School to school learning Through the process of collaboratively creating and

sharing knowledge

Network- to-network learning NCSL will spread learning between networks

(Derived from 06, NCSL, 2002)

436

innovation and result in the creation of dense networks of support, on which schools

can draw to provide support structures for disadvantaged or disaffected pupils and

their families;

●situating the school as a community resource that is at the centre of a learning

community providing the social capital – networks, support structures, contacts

and relationships – that parents, teachers and pupils can draw on in the pursuit of

educational excellence for all.

The developing discourse around NLCs focuses on the network and collaborative

dimensions of the network market with little acknowledgement of how the market

dimensions impact on the nature, form and effectiveness of NLCs or how the aims of

government policy, in creating the network market, impact on NLCs. Rather, NLCs

are seen as opening up a space for the reassertion of teachers' professional autonomy

and for school rather than state control over the educational reform process.

However, in schools, teaching and learning are being restructured in the network

market in contradictory directions. One of the more obvious examples of this being

the tension between different models of teacher professionalism built into educational

reforms. (Reid et al ., 2004). The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) argues

that government policy has moved from an era of prescription for teachers to earned

autonomy; but the form, content and objectives of teaching are still heavily prescribed

by the government. Consequently,

Teachers are urged to innovate, share best practice and develop a sound

evidence base to inform practice by taking responsibility for their own

learning so that they can 'lead the way in removing barriers to learning

and finding solutions to learning challenges'(DfES, 2003c). At the same

time, however, the objectives, goals and purposes of education are set for

the profession by central government, together with the definition of

good teaching.

(Reid et al ., 2004, p. 263)

It is this context in which NLCs have to operate and this context that will condition

the forms of NLCs schools set up, the kinds of work they engage in and their impact

on pupils, teachers and schools.

A NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITY IN ACTION

The NLC that is the subject of this paper was part of the initial cohort and was set up in

2002, since when the authors have been involved both in its activities and its evaluation.

This NLC is situated in Bradford, a sizable city in the North of England that played a

most significant part in the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of the British

Labour Party. Its school standards are below the national average and following

inspection in 2001 the delivery of schooling was taken out of the control of the Local

Education Authority and placed in the hands of a private international company

SERCO, trading under the name Education Bradford. The North East Bradford

Networked Learning Community (NEBNLC) can be viewed as an exemplar in that it

IVAN REID ET AL .

is one of a few NLCs that has a very active partnership with Higher Education (the

University of Bradford). Apart from the evaluation – that included attending a number

of the regular day-long core meeting and events – the University has provided a number

of inputs to this NLC, including:

●a Master's level module specifically designed to enable staff to conduct small-scale

research on a problem or issue identified by and in their own school (from the

Unit for Educational Research and Evaluation);

●information technology demonstration and facilitation of the Blackboard

programme (from the School of Lifelong Learning and Development);

●conflict resolution (from the Department of Peace Studies).

The NEBNLC consists of 12 schools:

●three large comprehensive (pupils 11–19 years old) secondary schools, one of

which is a Church of England establishment;

●a Muslim [girls only] secondary (pupils 11–18 years old) school;

●a special needs (pupils 2–11 years old) school;

●seven primary (pupils 5–11 years old) schools.

The NEBNLC has been very successful in:

●forming a core group with an established identity;

●setting up working groups;

●generating a range of training opportunities for group members and curriculum

enrichment activities for pupils.

Table 29.2 illustrates these achievements in some more detail.

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NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES

TABLE 29.2 Network learning group activities

Working Core group (exists for life of NLC)

groups ICT group (two terms)

established Expressive Arts Group (two terms)

Core group Established Associate Teaching Fellowships in conjunction with University of

Bradford, 5 research projects on parental involvement and 1 on boys

achievement completed

Links developed with Gifted and Talented Initiatives,additional funding

(£4,000) secured and a Puzzle Day run for selected pupils

Student Voice Conference organised and run successfully for 2 years Conflict

Resolution Training Day run for NLC schools by University

Virtual Learning Environment set up for network by University

Accelerated Learning and group development sessions run for core group

Special Needs Provision training

Science Day organised and run

ICT group Produced a CD rom detailing a day in the life of pupils for citizenship

curriculum

Identified a weakness in year 6 curriculum in teaching control technology and

arranged for lesson plans to be shared amongst group

Organised a Technology Day

Expressive arts Several arts project running in schools. Projects will form the

centrepiece of an Expressive Arts Day

438 IVAN REID ET AL .

Table 29.3 identifies the main activities the NEBNLC have engaged in and their

impact on the six levels of learning, as reported by core group members. Interviews

and evaluation forms completed by core group members and sub group participants

demonstrated that the NEBNLC has been particularly important in:

●creating space for teachers to develop and broaden curriculum activities;

●developing collaborative working practices and overcoming the isolation many

teachers feel;

●providing a forum in which teachers can discuss and share ideas on teaching and

learning and develop new teaching and learning strategies;

●providing a space in which teachers can mutually support each other.

Typical comments were:

I learnt plenty of new ways to encourage children to work as a

team … and to recognise different forms of intelligence and to address

this by varying my teaching style.

I have shared details of the (conflict resolution) day with colleagues and

the ideas have been adapted and used in Personal, Social, Health

Citizenship Education (PSHCE) lessons.

As a newcomer to the group I was struck by the range of

projects … research, student conferences, the production of CD roms

and subject activity days … perhaps most useful however, are the con-

tacts, links and partnerships across schools … colleagues now have a

forum in which to share ideas, information and expertise.

The sub groups are a real benefit because you can get other staff

involved rather than just us going to meetings and reporting back.

It is clear that the NEBNLC has provided a space in which teachers can engage in

developing a range of activities that would not have existed without the group's exis-

tence. However, the group has also experienced a range of difficulties in the follow-

ing areas:

●securing commitment and equal levels of engagement from all participating

schools. Some schools may need to drop out of the NEBNLC in the coming year

because of lack of commitment from Heads or the need to meet other school pri-

orities;

●cascading NEBNLC activities into schools. Core group members perceive a real

lack of awareness of NEBNLC activities in partner schools other than among

those teachers who have participated in the groups or events;

●demonstrating impact on schools and pupils. The NEBNLC has generated a con-

siderable amount of activity, but the core group is concerned about how they can

demonstrate links to pupil attainment or widespread change in teaching and learn-

ing methods within partner schools. This is becoming an urgent problem because

schools' participation and future NEBNLC funding may depend on demonstrating

impact.

439

NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES

TABLE 29.3 Network learning group key activities and impact

Level Process

Pupil learning Enriched curriculum opportunities through the activities

organised by the NLC and development of additional

teaching and learning resources;

Pupil visits to other schools;

Teachers report various impacts depending on project e.g.increased self

esteem (Expressive Arts and Student Voice): enhanced learning skills -

puzzle day, accelerated learning and development of team working, raised

expectations – school visits, better behaviour through conflict resolution day.

Staff learning and Participation in groups: sharing of best practice, development of new

professional development teaching and learning strategies, creation of new teaching resources;

Specific training events to develop new skills: conflict resolution, special needs

provision, whiteboards, accelerated learning;

HEI links: Associate Teaching Research Fellowships, e-learning environment

and training to support teacher use, collaboration in NLC meetings to

discuss and share ideas on teaching and learning.

Leadership for learning Each core member acts as leader for NLC in schools and takes a lead in

and leadership organising events;

development One member took on a role as a regional co-ordinator; Members have led

staff meetings in school;

NLC raises the school profile of participating teachers and

provides opportunities for other members of school staff to

take the lead participation in NLC events.

School-wide learning Resources banks: puzzle day, student voice, CD-rom, conflict

day materials, science packs, literacy and numeracy resources.

Dissemination of NLC activities and research of Associate

Fellows at staff meetings, pupil assemblies, newsletter; Changes

in practice and policy: one school changed year 2 curriculum

through introduction of group development strategies, one school

changed behaviour policy through introduction of conflict

resolution techniques, three schools introduced learning cycle

model, one school developed

research tool for identifying learning styles and five core

group members reported the development of co-operative

working amongst teachers.

School-to-school learning Participation in groups led to: inter school visits, common

arts and ICT projects, dissemination of ideas around

teaching and learning, sharing of resources and spin offs,

such as: ICT group sharing, information on best ICT

systems to buy leading to financial savings;

NLC resource banks developed e.g. ICT CD-rom on pupil

transitions, puzzle day activities;

Links developed between schools on Gifted and Talented provision;

NLC newsletter promoting activities and fostering development of

common identity.

Network-to-network Attendance at National Conferences;

learning NLC co-ordinator taken on role as regional co-ordinator

and can disseminate best practice.

440

These difficulties are illustrated by the following teachers' comments:

The National College have underestimated what a slow process it is

developing major attitudinal change and overcoming Heads with their

own school priorities … there is no fast track. Primary schools especially,

being small and teachers having multiple roles, have difficulty finding

time for collaboration.

Lack of commitment from certain schools has been the biggest disap-

pointment; some people have used it as a day out of school.

We have not been able to sustain the ICT group despite enthusiasm

because only 7 of the original 13 actually did anything.

Primaries who got most out of our network are where Heads and Deputy

Heads have been involved … in a school like mine this doesn't happen so

nobody else in the school gets involved.

It has impacted on my practice but there was no way it could impact on

the rest of the whole school without senior backing … it was bound to be

small steps. Our biggest problem is that individual teachers may know

about group work but there is no real profile.

I don't think we will be in the group next year because it is not a priority

for our Head.

Autonomous, reflective or prescribed practitioners?

At its outset the NEBNLC appeared to be very much about setting its own agenda. It was

established on a bid that rested on two major factors: the development of a seamless

5 to 16 Citizenship curriculum (then a new element in the British National Curriculum)

and teacher research. However, at an early meeting of the core group where the specially

written research module was presented by a professor it became clear that the group was

keen to protect what it viewed as its agenda. This initial apparent resentment to the

possibility of 'dancing to someone else's tune' was overcome by the Unit acting posi-

tively to support the group's aims. However, during the second year a series of reviews

by the NCSL clearly indicated a growth in the central control of activities, which calls

into question the degree of autonomy that NLCs are allowed to have.

The space in which the NLC can develop its own educational agenda is being

increasingly narrowed. The most recent meeting of the core group (May 2004) was

given over entirely to reviewing the extent to which the work of the group could be

justified in terms of impact on pupil attainment and school teaching and learning

methods. Under direction from the NCSL, the group has to complete an audit of

activities, produce a portfolio of evidence demonstrating impact and attend a national

conference to disseminate their activities in June 2004. Failure to comply could result

in loss of funding, as could failure to demonstrate impact. This would lead to the

termination of the group. As a Regional Group Co-ordinator argued:

The NCSL and DfES are worried about the operational activity

gap … they have given out millions of pounds and they want to see that

IVAN REID ET AL .

it has worked … it is not enough to say that NLCs are about learning but

why didn't they let us know what outcomes they wanted from the beginning?

In effect, the NCSL is acting as a disciplinary mechanism to ensure that NLCs follow

the objectives of government policy and promote the government's model of teaching

and learning. The danger here is that NLCs themselves become an arm of this disci-

plinary mechanism through which government steers the restructuring of education

and teaching. If so, rather than producing a space for the reassertion of teacher

professional autonomy and reflective practice, NLCs will further promote the trend

towards reducing teachers to technicians who deliver predetermined educational

products to meet predetermined objectives. In the Foucauldian sense, teachers in

NLCs might be reduced to docile bodies.

Of course, teachers can and do resist this process as the activities generated by the

NEBNLC show. Real benefits can and do develop from the process of collaboration

although not necessarily ones that can be directly measured or that directly produce

rises in pupil attainment. However, the space is not just being narrowed from above,

via NCSL and DfES, but also from below, via the individual schools comprising the

network. Again the pressure is one to justify impact. School heads in particular are

likely to be more interested in NLCs in so far as they help the school meet school

objectives, rather than the extent to which they provide spaces for teachers to be inno-

vative, share ideas or develop activities which, while interesting, cannot be directly

related to pupil outcomes in performance.

NLCs have provided space during the working week for some teachers'professional

development. In its first year NEBNLC provided for a day a week release for a

teacher from each of the community's schools. Such opportunities have been rare in

Britain since the 1980s when some teachers gained full or part-time secondment to

undertake higher education delivered courses. These were effectively ended as the

funding for such purposes was moved from Local Education Authority to individual

school budgets.

While CPD as delivered by higher education institutions always operated in a market

it was a more closed one than that created by the transfer of funding and the growth of

private commercial providers. For a range of reasons teachers shunned many HE pro-

vided courses – frequently seen as academic (often inaccurately) in favour of shorter

non-award bearing courses of direct classroom relevance. NLCs can be viewed as a

further step in enabling teacher autonomy in respect to CPD, since they are provided

with the space and resources to 'purchase' what they see as necessary. This step is neatly

illustrated in the following statement by a member of the NEBNLC's core group.

I feel now empowered to choose what professional learning I will do. For

example accelerated learning and then this leads into my work with the

pupils. I also have the confidence to reject professional learning that I do

not need.

However, the pressures that the NEBNLC faces from above and below threaten to

close this space. Already one school has left the group, two others are considering

441

NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES

442

leaving and the remainder are locked in a debate about how they can 'cascade'

NEBNLC activities into partner schools, demonstrate impact and persuade Head

Teachers in member schools to actively support the group. Further, when the additional

funding the NEBNLC receives comes to an end in July 2005 there are serious doubts

as to whether or not the group will be able to sustain itself.

For both government and individual schools there is a premium in establishing and

participating in initiatives which can demonstrate impact on attainment. If the NEBNLC

cannot demonstrate that it has impacted on teaching and learning in the prescribed

ways set by central government, then its member schools are unlikely to support it, as

is the government. The end product of this may well be to close it off as a space for

the enhancement of reflective practice or professional autonomy.

Where next?

The difficulties faced by teachers in the NEBNLC of maintaining a space where they

have control of the educational agenda and the development of their own professional

practice while at the same time meet prescribed pupil attainment goals reflect the

contradictions and tensions of the network market where:

●increasingly differentiated autonomous schools compete against each other in

national league tables;

●the nature, form, content and goals of education are determined by central

government;

●conflicting models of teaching operate: one in which the teacher is positioned as

a deliverer of preset curricula to meet preset objectives, the other in which teachers

are positioned as leaders of learning who innovate, develop new ideas and develop

their own enquiry based teaching approaches;

●conflicting models of learning operate: the dominant model being one in which

learning is reduced to a set of measurable attainments in a limited curriculum, the

other model being an emphasis on the development of creativity, social skills and

a broad curriculum.

The space created for teachers to engage in collaboration, innovation, sharing of

ideas and development of best practice is perhaps inevitably squeezed by the:

●increasing diversification of schools which can undermine the development of

common interest or approaches;

●individual autonomy of schools which means that without senior management

commitment initiatives like NLCs quickly become marginalised;

●competitive pressures schools face to secure high league table positions;

●centrally determined priority for schools to raise educational standards as measured

on a narrow band of attainment criteria.

At the time of writing and despite the fact that the first NLCs face the end of their

government funding, it is still too early to draw an evaluative conclusion as to their

success and achievements. Doubtless as is illustrated in our case study NLCs have

provided a number of teachers with the time, space and opportunity to regain or

develop their professionalism. Some schools and their pupils may well have benefited

in the process. Doubtless some of these teachers will attempt to sustain this professional

IVAN REID ET AL .

gain and level of autonomy in the face of what appears to be increasing prescription

from governmental bodies. Whether or not NLCs can become self-financing and

sustaining is likely to depend on local factors, a significant one being the value of the

NLC as perceived by the schools within it. However, a mould has been broken, not

only for some teachers, but also for some schools. The closer relationships and joint

activities between some geographically proximate schools and between primary and

secondary schools may well be sustained at the local level, irrespective of the future

of NLCs and despite the constraints of the network market, the DfES and the NCSL.

REFERENCES

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pp 444–449.

NCSL (2003a) A Model for Networked Learning. Cranfield: National College for School Leadership.

NCSL (2003b) Principles. Cranfield: National College for School Leadership.

NCSL (2002) Why Networked Learning Communities? Cranfield: National College for School

Leadership.

O'Laughlin, M. (1992) Rethinking Science Education: Beyond Piagetian Constructivism Toward a

Sociocultural model of Teaching and Learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, vol. 29,

p. 792.

Prawat, R. S. (1992) Teachers' Beliefs about Teaching and Learning: A Constructivist Perspective.

American Journal of Education, vol. 100, pp. 354–395.

Reid, I. and Brain, K. (2003) Education action zones; Mission Impossible? International Studies in the

Sociology of Education, vol. 13, 2, pp. 195–214.

Reid, I., Brain, K. and Comerford Boyes, L. (2004) Teachers or Learning Leaders?: Where Have all the

Teachers Gone? Gone to be Leaders Every One. Educational Studies, vol. 30, 3, pp. 251–264.

Richert, A. E., Stoddard, P. and Kass, M. (2001) The Promise of Partnership for Promoting Reform. Taken

from 'Guiding school change: The role and work of change agents'. Teachers College, Columbia

University. National College for School Leadership.

443

NETWORKED LEARNING COMMUNITIES

Student achievement in the United States continues to be a source of concern as

evidenced by the number of politicians, members of the press, and the public who

regularly discuss "failing schools." Recent international comparisons in the areas of

mathematics and science, for example, suggest little to no growth. Children in the

United States continue to fall behind most industrialized nations (Stigler and Hiebert,

1997, 1999). In response to the situation, the federal government focused on the

creation of a high stakes accountability program, the No Child Left Behind Act. As a

result, every state that agrees to accept federal funds must hold schools accountable

for making "adequate yearly progress." Instead of creating initiatives that focus on

improving the practice of teaching and learning, these reform efforts focus on design-

ing classrooms with teacher proof curriculum (e.g., Nelson, 1998). Districts and

schools across the country are currently devoting significant numbers of planning

hours on strategies for aligning grade level curriculum to yearly high stakes tests.

While these meetings may provide an opportunity for better curriculum alignment,

they do not get at the core of student failure, ineffective instructional practices.

Instructional practices can only be changed through examination of teaching practice

and its impact on student learning. In order for this to occur, schools need to create a

process for teachers to systematically study teaching strategies and lessons that will

increase student achievement (e.g., Fisher et al ., 2005). Unfortunately, most teachers

do not have a systematic way to collaborate and validate or update their instructional

practices. Change is left to individual teachers or school sites. Teachers and adminis-

trators are left to stumble upon "effective" teaching strategies and lessons, or worse

yet rely upon the pendulum swing of latest educational reform efforts. All too often

experienced teachers "wait out" these new reform movements. Teachers continue to

implement methods they have utilized since the start of their teaching career. The

teaching status quo continues not because teachers are lazy or desire to utilize inef-

fective teaching strategies, but rather that no alternative is provided. Professional

development programs for teachers have remained the focus of educational change

since the 1990's. This interest, however, has continued to produce inadequate gains in

student achievement. Professional development programs need to "provide teachers

with an opportunity to learn about teaching" (Stigler and Heibert, 1999, pp. 12–13).

Many excellent new teaching practices are never fully implemented in the teaching

profession because the culture of teaching prohibits a critical mass from ever forming.

Research suggests that teachers rely on their first 2 years in the profession as a

guidepost for teaching techniques (e.g., Burk and Fry, 1997; Bondy and McKenzie,

1999). These teaching practices often remain in place their entire teaching careers.

445

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

30. LESSON STUDY: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR

TEACHER LED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 445–456.

446

Teaching strategies they stumbled upon in these first 2 years set the foundation for

the classroom learning for generations of students. Additionally, teachers often rely

on the ineffective strategies modeled to them as children in their K-12 classrooms.

Lesson study provides one way in which teachers can systematically improve

instruction and decrease teacher isolation, if it can be sustained over time. Lesson

study provides a process for teachers to collaborate and design lessons while examining

successful teaching strategies to increase student learning. In the process of lesson

study, teachers work together to plan, teach and observe a cooperatively developed

lesson. While one teacher implements the lesson in the classroom, others observe and

take notes on student questions and understanding. The development of an "ideal

lesson" is not the critical component in the lesson study process (Lewis, 2000). Focus

on student learning and professional collaboration is what drives the group process.

This chapter provides attempts to answer three questions related to the use of

lesson study as a professional development model, including:

●What is lesson study and what does it look like?

●What are the theories behind the use of lesson study as a professional development

model?

●Is there evidence that this model of professional development impacts student

achievement?

WHAT IS LESSON STUDY AND WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE?

Catherine Lewis describes the process of lesson study as the cycle in which

teachers collaborate to formulate goals for student learning and develop-

ment, plan instruction designed to formulate goals for student learning

and development, plan instruction designed to foster these goals, and

observe and discuss selected research lessons.

(Lewis, 2002, p. 5).

Lesson study or "jugyokenkyu " is imbedded in the core activities of teachers in

Japan. Yoshida describes lesson study as a process where, "teachers form several

Lesson Study Groups (usually divided by grade level). Each of these groups develops

a lesson and implements it in a regular classroom, after which the teachers observe

and discuss the lesson. The cycle of meetings and lessons is usually conducted several

times a year under the school's main Jugyokenkyu study theme" (1999, p. 110).

Lesson study consists of a number of steps that are commonly used as teachers

engage in this process. First, lesson study team members use multiple data sources to

identify learning goals for students. Then, the team members collaboratively design

a "Research Lesson." This lesson provides the team members with a common focus

and agreed upon achievement benchmarks for achievement. This research lesson can

occur at the beginning of the teaching unit, be used as a springboard for subsequent

lessons, or be implemented at later point in the lesson series sequence. Regardless,

the research lesson provides guiding conversations for the team as they work toward

increasing achievement for all students. The goal of the collaboratively designed

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

research lesson is not to create a "perfect" lesson but rather to provide an opportunity

for time and professional development on the use of student data to plan instructional

experiences for students.

The third step in the lesson study cycle is the research lesson presentation. One of

the team members presents the collaboratively designed lesson to his or her students,

while the other members take the role of researchers. As the teacher presents the lesson,

fellow group members are both observing the level of student engagement and

actively questioning students to understand their thinking throughout the lesson.

Student questions are established by the lesson study group in previous planning

sessions. Each team member is also responsible for a group of students. The use of

this focused questioning strategy ensures a more complete picture of the learning

needs of all students.

After the lesson has been presented, the group convenes for a formal debrief session.

At this meeting, teachers analyze the data collected and examine students' progress

toward the learning goals. Teachers use these meetings to identify areas of improvement

for future lessons, consider instructional strategies that may be used by the group to

help increase student understanding and ascertain what the next steps will be in their

continued collaborative work together.

WHAT ARE THE THEORIES BEHIND THE USE OF

LESSON STUDY AS A PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL?

Theory 1: Teachers can not be isolated

Isolation is inherent in the culture of teaching. In order to make substantive gains in

student achievement, classrooms must become open for professional collaboration.

Teachers have historically existed in a "one room schoolhouse" world. Wilms and

Zell argue (2002) that, "Most schools still operate like old mass production facilities.

Bells ring, students move through a fragmented curriculum, and hours fly by. Quality

of student learning is measured by narrow tests, and increasingly, teachers' salaries

and school resources are being tied to test scores" (p. 6). While some school districts

across the country are moving toward opening classroom doors and making classroom

instruction public and accessible to all teachers and administrators, most still operate

under this dated industrial model.

Extreme levels of professional isolation are inherent in the culture of teaching and

needs to be examined in order to make substantive gains in student achievement.

While beginning teacher support programs are aimed at ensuring that novice teachers

are provided with support systems to help alleviate this sense of isolation, experienced

teachers are left to recede into the industrial model of educational isolation that began

in the early 1900s (Olebe et al., 1999; Wilms, 2002). It is because of this disconnect to

meaningful learning experiences for both students and teachers that our educational

reform efforts continue to be at risk.

Teachers must be provided with opportunities, with the help of colleagues and

coaches, sustained over the course of their careers if they are to continually improve

student achievement. Many teachers in the United States today are provided with

447

LESSON STUDY: TEACHER LED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

448

extremely limited opportunities and focused time to collaborate and dialogue about

instructional delivery. A teacher's capacity in his or her subject area has the most

significant impact on student success in the area of mathematics. We must continue to

examine new ways to help break down this isolation and create collegial opportunities

for teachers.

There are currently no programs that exist to systematically bring together experi-

enced teachers to study effective teaching practices and examine student achievement.

As a profession, we do systematically provide this high level of examination for pre-

service teachers. Prospective teachers take a sequence of coursework at a university,

which examines current teaching pedagogy and educational theory. As these teachers

in training progress through the university preparation program, they put into practice

these new skills in guided instructional settings with practicum classroom students

(e.g., Farnan et al ., 2003).

Upon completing their teaching credential, teachers in 38 states including California

are required to participate in a 2-year induction program. These beginning teacher sup-

port programs are aimed at decreasing teacher attrition due to the demanding life of

a classroom teacher. The mentorship and limited collegiality provided during this

induction program helps enable teachers to survive the daily challenges and instructional

demands. While these programs have continued to show dramatic increases in

teacher retention and decreased levels of perceived isolation (Olebe et al ., 1999),

state funding is discontinued for these new teachers after their first 2 years. Teachers

are then relegated to a state of isolation, which continues to capture many of their

experienced colleagues.

How can we create a process that provides the same level of professional learning

and engagement for our experienced teachers? Why is it acceptable for our teaching

professionals to disengage after their college years? As teachers begin to face the

difficulties of the daily rigors of teaching, they often retreat into the confines of their

classroom. This creates a sense of isolation from their academic community and col-

leagues, which causes frustration levels to rise. Wilms (2002) argues that, "Teachers

have little time or incentive to work together as professionals in the service of children's

learning. Most teachers cope by simply walling themselves off inside their own class-

rooms and teaching the best they know how" (p. 608). It is crucial to provide oppor-

tunities for these teachers to engage in professional discourse with fellow teachers and

to create an environment where they are supported in areas of difficulty.

Theory 2: All teachers require professional

development

Professional development programs remain the backbone of U.S educational reform

efforts. In order for our students to have high quality educational experiences, we

need to support teacher training which increases the knowledge level for teachers. In

1983, A Nation at Risk noted that, "nearly half of the newly employed mathematics,

science, and English teachers are not qualified to teach these subjects" (p. 3). Today,

over two decades later, these statistics are virtually unchanged. Far too many stu-

dents, especially students in urban schools, are trapped in under performing learning

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

environments, are held to low expectations, and are taught by untrained or under-

prepared teachers.

Joyce and Showers (2002) point our attention to four conditions that must be present

if staff development is to significantly affect student learning. In their words, quality

professional development is:

●A community of professionals comes together who study together, put

into practice what they are learning, and share the results.

●The content of staff development around curricular and instructional

strategies selected because they have a high probability of affecting

student learning-and, as important, student ability to learn.

●The magnitude of change generated is sufficient that the students'

gain in knowledge and skills is palpable. What is taught, how it is

taught, and the social climate of the school have top change to the

degree that the increase in student ability to learn is manifest.

●The process of staff development enables educators to develop the

skill to implement what they are learning.

(Joyce and Showers, 2002, p. 4)

This set of criteria provides a backbone for staff development programs. By creating

staff development programs that help create a process for focused inquiry around stu-

dent learning, we provide teachers and opportunity to collaborate and to develop

ideas that increase student achievement. Teachers need to be in the process of con-

tinuously examining student work and data form daily informal assessments to mon-

itor the progress and understanding. Joyce and Showers (2002) suggest, "… student

learning must be studied continuously and diagnostically. For example, teachers who

study weekly samples of their students' writing with an eye to modulating instruction

based on student ability create more energy in the teaching/learning environment" (p. 6).

Theory 3: Professional development should be

based on student performance data

Decisions regarding the focus for staff development should come as a result of an

assessment of both the data and needs of the students. Administrators and teacher

leadership teams need to examine which are the most critical needs of its student and

how the shift in student instruction can result in long term gains in student under-

standing. Joyce and Showers (2002) examine this relationship, "content selection is

dedicated by the need for change that a faculty perceives … faculties use a combina-

tion of perceptions ('what do we feel are our most pressing needs?') and data ('What

do our test scores tell us?') to select targets for improvement. If the process results in

a list of needs in which all items have equal weight, the list may grow to 15 or 20

item …" (p. 61).

While there are certainly a great number of activities that should be examined in

the school improvement process, a focused course of curriculum development will

result in greater student achievement. They further contend, "A faculty is much better

449

LESSON STUDY: TEACHER LED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

450

positioned to change something if it can focus on a top priority in a way that

simultaneously acknowledges both the presence and importance of everything on the

list …" (Joyce and Showers, 2002, p. 61).

The ability of teachers to work together to examine curriculum and student data can't

be understated. Banks and Mayes (2001, p. 320) discuss the literature surrounding

teacher-teacher staff development:

… teachers learn much from each other. They cite fellow teachers as the

most valuable source of professional development. In recent years,

teacher development approaches which built on collegial and collaborative

work among teachers have become prominent in the discourse on school

improvement and educational change. Peer coaching, advising teachers,

cooperative professional development and mentoring are all examples of

this mode of teacher development

By creating professional development programs that create collaborative environments

for teachers to engage in a focused examination of curriculum and student learning

development, lesson study can help facilitate increased student achievement and

decrease the culture of teacher isolation. Creating collaborative professional devel-

opment programs will also assist in facilitating an environment where new teachers

no longer struggle in a state of isolation.

IS THERE EVIDENCE THAT THIS MODEL OF

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS STUDENT

ACHIEVEMENT?

An obvious question to ask is, does this work? Evidence from Linn et al. (2000),

Fernandez, (2002), Fernandez and Chokshi (2002), Fernandez et al. (2003), Kelly

(2002), and Lewis and Tsuchida (1998) all suggest that lesson study will improve

student achievement. In an effort to extend the research database on lesson study,

specifically in the area of urban education, we conducted a lesson study research

project in San Diego, CA. We will discuss the research project and the outcomes and

then summarize our thinking on the usefulness of lesson study as a professional

development model.

Context

The school chosen for this study, Rosa Parks Elementary, is located in the City

Heights community of San Diego and is part of an Educational Collaborative with

San Diego Unified School District and San Diego State University. Three schools

comprise the City Heights Educational Collaborative: Rosa Parks Elementary,

Monroe Clark Middle School and Hoover High School. They are also Professional

Development Schools (PDS) for San Diego State University. It is one of the most

economically challenged communities in San Diego County and is often referred to

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

as the "Ellis Island of San Diego". With a total of 5% of the city's population, City

Heights suffers a disproportionately high incidence of serious crimes. In 2003,

violent crimes, including murder, rape, robbery, and assault, occurred at more than

twice the citywide average. Juvenile crime is also a serious problem. Fifteen youth

gangs are documented in this area. Their membership runs in the thousands.

As part of this study, teachers were observed, interviewed and surveyed as they

engaged in a process of Lesson Study. Teachers were also observed in both lesson

study groups and classroom instruction. These observations were video taped and

reviewed as participants continue to engage in conversations about improving instruc-

tional practices. Lesson study participants and the researcher used the data gathered

from these observations to guide focused conversations about better meeting the stu-

dents' instructional needs. Teacher and researcher utilized the Plan-Do-Check-Act

model as a way to continually monitor and refine the Lesson Study process.

Focus groups were also conducted as lesson study groups continue to develop to

help monitor progress and guide future changes. All interviews and focus group data

was be recorded, transcribed and analyzed. These focus groups created another for-

mat for study participants' to collect and analyze data to help guide and refine the

process.

Teachers and school site administrators were surveyed using Likert-scale ques-

tionnaires, used to assess staff perceptions regarding this model of teacher led

professional development. Administrators at the case study school also participated

in structured interviews to examine the impact of leadership style as related to the

findings. Survey data from the participating teachers and site administrators will

continue to be analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS),

to make programmatic changes data and provide teachers with a continual feed-

back loop.

Findings

This project introduced lesson study to a group of 30 teachers. Teachers involved in

this study group learned through the lesson study process, facilitated by the

researchers, to refine and reflect their teaching strategies and develop lessons that

increased student understanding. Teachers participating in this study group engaged

in weekly lesson study forums to help them design and implement math lessons.

These lessons were created as a group and delivered by one group member. Lessons

were then analyzed and refined by the group to increase both students' understand-

ing and engagement. This process continued with a series of subsequent group

designed lessons throughout the year-long lesson study process, following a Plan-

Do-Check-Act cycle. Kelly, a first grade teacher, reflected:

To have time to create a unit that we actually got to use, implement, see the

whole process through, I thought was fabulous. To actually be able to watch

someone else teach it and then just be able to focus on the kids, I thought was

really incredible. I mean, the whole thing, I thought was just amazing to do.

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452

PERCEIVED STRENGTHS OF LESSON STUDY

First, participants identified a number of strengths of lesson study as a process. Some

of the benefits of Lesson Study that they identified are its:

●emphasis on planning meaningful lessons that meet student needs,

●inquiries about student assessment, and

●impetus for formulating short and long term curriculum goals.

Monica contrasted traditional professional development with lesson study:

Most professional development is a waste of time. To take a group of teach-

ers at the end of the day, stick them in a room, make them sit for an hour

after they've been teaching all day, it's just – it's not effective. We don't do

that with the children because we know that they won't be able to pay

attention. I think lesson study is a much more effective way of doing pro-

fessional development because you're getting people that are interested in

particular topics, everyone's involved, everyone has a part. Even if you're

just observing, you're taking notes, you're doing something, you have a

part and you're not stuck there until God knows how long, until the State

says you have to be there until 4:30 in the afternoon or whatever it is.

She reflected further:

One thing that lesson study allowed me to do was to see what was going

on in other classes where in teaching there's so little time to go and really

talk with your colleagues about what they're doing and – unless you're

specifically planning with them. It's given me an opportunity to see what

other people did and just also to hone my own teaching. For example, I

did one of the lessons that we all came up with and it was just a real pos-

itive environment and I was a little nervous doing a lesson in front of my

colleagues because who wants to be criticized.

Second, the participants at Rosa Parks identified strengths of Lesson Study as a

process for teacher led professional development. They were:

●increased levels of reflection on teaching practices,

●the Lesson Study learning community as the basis of the professional development

program,

●the relationship of the Lesson Study teams,

●the structure of Lesson Study as a model for teacher led professional development,

●its emphasis on lesson planning, and

●its excellent preparation for the National Board for Professional Teaching

Standards (NBPTS).

Jasmine articulated the usefulness of lesson study as an effective form of professional

development:

And I think we as teachers have so much to offer one another that com-

ing in together and collaborating and sharing ideas, and watching each

other is just so important. I think we have more to offer one another than

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

an administrator has to offer us. I think they're a little disconnected.

Their responsibilities aren't the same as ours currently. They were in the

past, but they're not any more. So, and we are so busy in our six- to eight-

hour day with the children that we never really have that opportunity. I think

it would be great to have more opportunities like this.

Eighty-three percent (83%) of informants named reflection as the most significant

influence of the Lesson Study model. Lesson Study participants reported that reflection

occurred through group planning sessions and observational debrief conversations. It

occurred as a solitary activity as well a collaborative one between Lesson Study

group participants. Denise characterizes her opportunity to reflect on the learning

process with students and colleagues:

It gave me more time to be able to interview a child, to watch the lesson

and watch what went well and what didn't go so well. It came with our

planning and to see it come from a kid's perspective because I don't see

lessons really anymore from a kid's perspective. I could actually ask them

'Hey, so what did you think?'And we're both looking at this together from

an outside perspective, what do you think about it, why did you do this,

why did you do it this way. Kids are pretty articulate even at 5 years old.

So it really neat to kind of hang out down on their level, fun, cool.

Sixty seven percent (67%) of Lesson Study informants reported that the initial

training sessions of the Lesson Study groups were a major strength. Ninety-six

percent (96%) of survey respondents perceived the relationship of the Lesson Study

group as being equally important. Lastly, seventy-six percent (76%) of informants

reported that Lesson Study helped teachers formulate more effective short and

long-term goals and plans for their students and themselves.

PERCEIVED WEAKNESSES OF

LESSON STUDY

According to the Lesson Study participants, the most serious weakness of the teacher

led professional development program was the planning time required outside of the

school setting. All (100%) of the participants identified planning time as the most

important area for improvement for this profession development system.

A second weakness of Lesson Study, identified by fifty-three percent (53%) of

survey participant respondents, was the time required to plan for the "Research

Lesson." Teacher informants in the study reported that the amount of time that the

Research Lesson required prior to its implementation was excessive. Although teachers

were involved with their first lesson study learning community and process of lesson

study, they reflected on how it would continue to empower teachers as the culture of

professional development began to shift. Tim characterized it:

Honestly, you just have to get teachers that are willing to participate. I

think if you explain what it is and there would be short demo lessons like

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LESSON STUDY: TEACHER LED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

454

those videos that we saw from Japan, I think you would get teachers that

were very interested in doing it and honestly I think it it'll become its

own entity after a while. People get used to okay, this is what we're doing.

It's a way to plan together and what teacher doesn't want to plan and hear what

other people are doing in the classroom and then get – and then plan together and

then learn from it.

Clearly teachers believed that lesson study was an important activity that impacted

their practice and was a superior form of professional development. Table 30.1 provides

a glimpse at the student achievement changes that resulted in a sustained focus on

lesson study in the area of mathematics education at Rosa Parks.

DISCUSSION

This study suggests that teachers who used Lesson Study as a form of teacher led pro-

fessional development had more positive perceptions of the process. The development

and implementation of reflective teaching practices was seen both by observers and

study participants as the most prevalent positive aspect of this professional development

system. This is consistent with the goals of teacher professional development (e.g., Joyce

and Showers, 2002).

While lesson study has been implemented in Japan for over 50 years with excellent

results (Lewis and Tsuchida, 1998), it is just beginning to be examined as an educa-

tional strategy in the United States. Furthermore, little research has been done in the

area of lesson study as an ongoing form of professional development with k-12

teachers. This research project examined this new area. It underscores the need to

help facilitate opportunities that empower teachers to become collaborative action

researchers in their own classrooms. Katherine summarizes the increase in student

awareness that the lesson study process provided:

… to actually model a lesson and have people observe it or to be one of

the people modeling it, you get to see the real hands-on that happens, the

dynamics of the children.

It is through this level of active engagement that teachers will be better able to view

themselves as teacher researchers and agents of educational change.

CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

TABLE 30.1 Changes in math achievement

1999 2005

Grade % Proficient/advanced % Proficient/advanced

221 64

312 58

415 55

519 47

CONCLUSION

Lesson study as a professional development process can build capacity of all

teachers. It is through collegial conversations and lesson study groups that teachers

can begin to develop a critical examination of their instructional practices. Through

lesson study, the culture of schooling can change. Teachers will be, and feel, less iso-

lated. Student performance data will be used for discussions, reflections, and plan-

ning. And, most importantly, student achievement will be directly impacted in ways

that are unattainable at this point in our educational history.

It is critical, that at this time in the history of public education that we begin to cre-

ate an atmosphere where all teachers are empowered to be researchers in their own

classroom, finding ways collaboratively to plan for and meet the needs of all stu-

dents. As teachers begin to engage in developing a shared vision around student

learning, the ability to critically examine data becomes more opportune. It is now

more critical than ever that change in education allows more time for teacher to col-

laborate around effective teaching practices and student learning. Richard Elmore

argues, "… most educators in the schools … believe that they are engaged in

enlightened reform. They have grade level-teams and common preparation periods,

use some form of external guidance or standards to make curriculum decisions, and

adopt models designed to increase their knowledge of good practice. But these

measures have had little or no effect on the schools ability to do the important work

of student learning" (2002, p. 3). Educational leaders and researchers must continue

to help create an atmosphere where collaboration and the study of effective teaching

practices become a continuing part of the work we do for children.

REFERENCES

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Bondy, E. and McKenzie, J. (1999) Resilience Building and Social Reconstructionist Teaching: A First-year

Teacher's Story. Elementary School Journal, vol. 100, pp. 129–150.

Burk, D. I. and Fry, P. G. (1997) Autonomy for Democracy in a Primary Classroom: A First Year Teacher's

Struggle. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 13, pp. 645–658.

Farnan, N., Fisher, D. and Frey, N. (2003) The "Big Picture" of education: A K-12 Teacher Preparation

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Fernandez, C., Cannon, J. and Chokshi, S. (2003) A U.S.-Japan Lesson Study Collaboration Reveals

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Lewis, C. (2000) Lesson Study: The core of Japanese professional development. Paper presented at the

American Educational Research Association conference, New Orleans, LA.

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Stigler, J. and Hiebert, J. (1999) The Teaching Gap. New York: Free Press.

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CHARLES PODHORSKY AND DOUGLAS FISHER

INTRODUCTION

The concerns of this chapter are threefold: to consider the effectiveness of Action

Learning as a tool for individual continuing professional development and organiza-

tional impact; to explore a collaborative approach to CPD between an English sixth

form college and a Higher Education Institution; and to explore the role of the

College Principal in linking individual and organizational learning.

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for teachers has never had such a

high profile in the United Kingdom (Cordingly et al., 2003). In the compulsory or

school sector staff have been involved in numerous professional development activi-

ties many of which have been linked directly to Government led policy initiatives

such as the National Literacy and Numeracy strategies and the National Primary

Strategy (2004). In the post-compulsory sector CPD has recently developed an

unprecedented profile, often linked to policy initiatives but also specifically to internal

and external quality initiatives (Knight and Trowler 2001). Such developments are

part of a landscape of significant change both in the nature of the CPD offered and in

the funding mechanisms supporting it (EPPI, 2004). Intrinsic tensions between indi-

vidual needs, wants and organisational requirements have been a continual feature of

CPD (Day, 1999): the insistence on evaluating direct impact on practice is a relatively

new but potentially significant addition to the CPD process.

A key strand of The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) current (2004)

CPD strategy is to help teachers "select the development activities that are likely to

have the greatest impact on their teaching" (DfEE, 2001). Such an aim is laudable but

the search for direct impact can lead to quick fix approaches via training rather than

continuing professional development. A potentially important balance has been

provided by the recent growth of the concept of teacher as researcher. A number of

important collaborative approaches to teachers'researching their professional practice

have been developed. Examples for the school sector include the recent Best Practice

Research Scheme (BPRS) and Research of the Month led by the General Teaching

Council England (GTCE, 2004). In the Further Education sector a similar process is

evident, led by the Learning Skills Council (LSC) and Learning Skills Development

457

MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON

31. AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO CPD:

AN EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT ON INDIVIDUAL

AND INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF

AN ACTION LEARNING PROGRAMME RUN IN

PARTNERSHIP BY AN HE INSTITUTION (HEI)

AND A SIXTH FORM COLLEGE (SFC)

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 457–464.

458

Agency (LSDA). There is a perceptible and increasing expectation that teachers and

post-compulsory education professionals will carry out practice-based research as

part of their ongoing professional practice. It is still uncertain whether this will be

supported and recognised as part of the professional role and the legitimacy of

making such a demand is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, the following

case study describes an innovative approach to CPD for staff within an English sixth

form college that explicitly attempts to marry practitioner research, learning and

organisational impact.

The chapter traces the development of a collaborative project between Liverpool

John Moores University (LJMU) Centre for CPD and Winstanley Sixth Form

College, Wigan, England. The English Sixth Form College is notoriously under

researched (Simkins and Lumby, 2001) and this in itself makes the research interesting.

However, what is potentially more significant is the collaborative design, delivery

and outcomes of the programme. The college principal wanted to design a pro-

gramme with a higher education organisation as a partner in a genuine collaborative

venture. The principal would be intimately involved in all aspects of the programme,

design, delivery, assessment and development. Middle management teaching staff

such as heads of department would be enrolled initially in a Postgraduate Certificate

in Educational Management that they could choose to develop into a Diploma or,

ultimately, an MA Educational over a three year part-time programme. The longitu-

dinal research possibilities provided by this timeframe were seen as potentially vital

to a realistic analysis of impact. There was a clear intention to move from action

research to action learning as the main learning tool and to use the programme as a

catalyst for the formal development of the college as a learning organisation. For the

higher education institution this relationship provided a fascinating research oppor-

tunity, for the college principal a chance to formalise and build on a particular

approach to leadership, and for staff to continue their professional development

through critical engagement with practice, theory and research.

Underpinning programme design was the view that individual action research

leading to action learning sets provided a model for the development and implemen-

tation of an organisational learning culture (Senge, 1990) and that to achieve this a

particular, "intelligent", leadership style was essential. Also implicit was the assumption

that a learning culture of this kind would spawn concrete as well as 'fringe' benefits:

Central to this realisation of this objective was the fostering, via CPD, of a body of

critical, confident professionals in the middle management group able to drive and

respond to change through explicit learning – a group of professionals who, in the

view of Kleine-Kracht (1993) are about the business of learning and of doing so in

non hierarchical structures or roles.

The programme was designed to provide participants with formal inputs from both

the higher education organisation and the principal and then to embed reflection and

action through initial action research projects in year one, leading into action learning

sets in year two. Through this process an engagement with current research and theory

would take place alongside a critical examination of college culture, systems and

practices provided by the principal. Learners would gain from external, informed

MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON

collaboration – seen as a fundamental strength of effective CPD for teachers

(Cordingley et al ., 2003) – as well as from focused organisational input. Participants

would have taught sessions on organisational cultures, models of leadership and

management and change. They would complete traditional assignments as an initial

step designed to encourage reflection on their practice linked to current and seminal

thinking on leadership and management. This would then be moved into an action

research phase where staff would work with colleagues relatively unknown to them

to complete action research projects. The final reports would be presented to the college

governing body for action. The principal as chief executive would guarantee either

direct action based on recommendations or a detailed rationale for no action.

A number of issues emerge from this design. The role of the principal as teacher,

assessor and chief executive raises concerns about control, academic freedom and

internal politics impacting on the learning process and openness of debate. This was

a constant theme and an area that the programme team consistently explored with the

participants. However, it was felt that this approach was legitimate as there was an

open and appropriately dispersed leadership style in place (Gregory, 1996). Rather

than hindering learning the position of the principal at the heart of the learning

process was more likely to bring about learning and change. It is the behaviour of the

leader which will have the greatest impact, and its importance is based on the fact

that only by spending time and energy in meeting people and explaining the message

will the genuine concerns of people be addressed. This is a central point referred to

in the later action learning evaluation.

The second year of the project witnessed a deliberate shift from a postgraduate

certificate based on action research and formal input to a postgraduate diploma

based on an action learning model led by the principal with some support from the

HEI staff. It was believed that action learning can provide a vehicle for individual

learning while establishing a route for the development of a learning organisation

(Harrison, 1996). Participants were thus encouraged to research potentially contro-

versial or contentious areas of the institution's operation, striving for debate rather

than consensus on the premise that "A learning organisation consciously permits

contradictions and paradoxes . In a learning organisation conflicts are not seen as

threats to be avoided but as challenges to be met, with the goal of stimulating ongo-

ing debate on rules, insights and principles." (Swieringa and Wierdsma)

Action learning has its origins in management development in non-educational

settings (Revans, 1982), although since the early 1990s it has been used to varying

degrees of success in management development for educational professionals. It is

interesting to note that action learning is appearing within current initiatives such as

the national primary strategy (2004). In its simplest sense, action learning is designed

to provide a process of mutual learning within a small group or set of managers

through questioning (Q) and reflection using theory and research where appropriate

(P). To use Revans'much quoted formula L  P Q: learning equals knowledge plus

questioning insight. For action learning to be effective it should produce action in the

workplace and genuine and often significant personal learning for the individual

(Morris, 1991) whilst acknowledging some of the possible limitations of the

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AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO CPD

460

approach (Harrison, 1996). Fundamental to our assessment of the likely success of

action learning was the contention that the creation of a learning organization could

be achieved through embedding policies of effective learning from the classroom

into the management processes of the College. It is this particular view which

attracted the principal of Winstanley College to the notion of developing the learning

organization and using the CPD programme and action learning as part of the

process.

RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION LEARNING PROGRAMME

Over the past six years Winstanley – a sixth form college specialising in advanced

level courses for its 1650full time 16–19 year old students – has recovered from a

period of financial instability and compulsory staff redundancies. It is currently in

sound financial health, is over-subscribed, has a reputation for academic excellence

and, since May 2001, has enjoyed Beacon status following an outstanding inspection

report. Since 1998 the college has undergone major shifts in organisational structure,

particularly at senior level. Authority has been dispersed in an effort to move away

from a 'headmaster's study' model of management to one in which individuals

throughout the organisation are expected to take full responsibility for the quality of

their particular function.

A less hierarchical structure has emerged with more people than previously

involved in decision-making and management responsibility spread more widely.

Central to this shift is the belief that the needs of students, parents and other stake-

holders are likely to be best served when the concept of continuous improvement is

vested in many hands. Having already undertaken training with a newly constituted

senior management team, the Principal was keen to develop further those character-

istically Winstanley ways of working and to ensure that core values were shared and

subscribed to at all levels of the institution. To that end, in May 2002 an in-house

middle-management programme was devised in conjunction with LJMU and rooted

in the principles of action learning and action research.

It was strongly felt that the benefits of such training would manifest themselves in

middle-ranking staff increasingly able to take decisions, lead others and rise to the

managerial challenges facing them. Without wishing to promote a crude 'manageri-

alism', Winstanley would swell its store of managerial talent and create a cluster of

'change agents' likely to influence organisational practice.

The last college inspection (March 2000) asserted that Winstanley College man-

agement had "no significant weaknesses". The preoccupation of the Principalship

was seen to be the core business of teaching and learning; senior management roles

were well defined and channels of communication clear. A fundamental aim of the

middle-management training was to build on these strengths and extend the best fea-

tures of the senior layer to the heart of the organisation – its middle managers. It was

felt that this objective would be best served by a theoretical overview supplemented

by reflection on personal practice and, for the most advanced learners, evaluative

research into aspects of institutional operation. Individual professional development

MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON

would thus complement and inform institutional self-assessment. The presence of

the Principal as lead teacher and organisational head would be crucial in cementing the

link.

Desired outcomes

The principal aims of the training were to:

●Help equip actual and aspiring middle managers with the skills required of the

successful leader-manager.

●Empower middle managers to assert their own visions and leadership styles (in a

manner recognisably in step with the vision and direction of the wider college).

●Erode any perceived divisions between senior and middle managers and between

teaching and support staff.

●Foster open debate about issues of concern to Winstanley staff and students.

Axiomatic to the spirit of the course were the convictions that:

●All organisations benefit from open dialogue and two-way communication and

any true 'learning organisation'should embody in its operation the values it cham-

pions.

●Whilst task orientation, administrative efficiency, financial acumen and the like

all have their place in the arsenal of the successful manager, the capacity to lead,

motivate and inspire others is ultimately paramount.

●The involvement of the college principal in the course would demonstrate the con-

viction that the head of an organisation should regard the training of staff as a

major priority and signify a willingness to practise the managerial gospel being

preached.

●The features of effective teaching are very similar to those of the effective managing

and development of staff – good classroom practice and good management should

be mutually supportive so improved management should lead to improvements in

teaching and learning.

The emphasis would be on 'people skills' and the cultivation of productive working

relations. College management would become even more participative and involving

by extending the decision making process to include middle-managers who would in

turn consult with their own team members. Changes would be measured in terms of

the whole staff's perception of the organisational culture of the college. A heightened

sense of value and self worth would, hopefully, foster a more productive working

environment for staff and students alike.

The concept of the learning organisation, as promoted by a number of writers

Agyris and Schon, 1997, Nevis et al., 1995, Senge, 1990 was a source of inspiration

to this thinking. Particularly seductive were the definitions of Pedlar et al. (1991) and

Senge's vision (1999) of organizations continually expanding their capacity through

a culture of continuous learning.

The programme in action

During the academic year 2002–03, 22 Winstanley staff undertook the management

programme. All completed the assignments – reflecting on their own roles and

461

AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO CPD

462

investigating broader aspects of the college's operation – and gained a Postgraduate

Certificate in Educational Management. During a specially convened mini-conference

the course participants presented their research findings to senior managers and

governors of the college. At least four have subsequently found their way into whole

college staff development events and the recommendations of several have come to

influence institutional practice. The programme was repeated in 2003–04 with 15

participants. Whilst only half have opted to gain the 'official' qualification there has

been another successful engagement with issues of common concern and the same

presentation event with assignment conclusions again being summarised for the ben-

efit of those in control of Winstanley's strategic direction.

Perhaps most significantly, seven of the class of 2002–03 have continued with

their studies over the past year and will complete MA dissertations. To our knowl-

edge no other further education or sixth form college has cultivated such a body of

teacher-researchers who are at once a product of, and major contributors to, 'the

learning organisation'. Their work during 2003–04 has been facilitated by a series of

action learning sets, chaired by the principal and supplementary tutorials with Kevin

Watson and/or Mike Aiello. It is hoped that at least some of the work produced will

be published.

Most Winstanley College staff likely to derive immediate benefit from the

management programme will have completed the certificate stage by the end of this

academic year. Some of them, as noted, will continue to work towards an MA in the

action learning set model pioneered this year. New for 2004–05, and aimed at a

different audience to the management course whilst maintaining the momentum of

the teacher-as-researcher principle, is the Postgraduate Certificate in Professional

Practice. Devised, again, in association with LJMU the focus here will be on teacher

effectiveness and classroom practice and can be pursued to MA level.

Evaluation

Direct participant feedback from both the Certificate and Diploma/MA level participants

has been extremely positive. Some of the following comments are informed by this.

The nature and level of staff discourse on issues related to the leadership, manage-

ment and the strategic direction of the college have been enhanced and are apparent

in, for example, staff meetings, departmental self-assessment reports, appraisal

review and internal training events. The majority of staff are conscious of being part

of an aspiring learning organisation and all that entails; many have been given not

only a voice in its development but a new language in which to express it.

College decisions and policy-making have been informed by the research findings

of members of that body. Governors and senior members have been able to make use

of the expertise of a range of stakeholders and thereby to embed teaching, learning

and research in the management process.

The position of the principal as head teacher-learner has been made absolutely

explicit. The development of staff is at the heart and not the periphery of the college's

purpose, the head of the institution has demonstrated an active commitment to the

core business of teaching and learning and thereby helped shorten the gap between

MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON

the rhetoric and reality of much educational leadership. In the words of one participant,

"You have put your money where your mouth is" and there is a complete resolve to

carry on so doing.

The institutional relationship between Winstanley College and LJMU has proved

to be strong and mutually beneficial. The university has gained a useful laboratory in

which to observe the effects of some new ideas and approaches to professional training

and development; the college has acquired a critical friend well placed to make

objective assessments as to the success or otherwise of its leadership and management.

The original desire to combine elements of theory and practice, of the academic and

the practical, of formal university-style teaching and original college-based research

has remained a guiding principle and could well become a model for comparable

institutional collaboration in the the future.

Teachers (and principals) should be encouraged to be learners. Lifelong learning in the

context of professional development should be far more than periodic skills up-dating

but, imaginatively interpreted, a force for individual and institutional re-generation.

Equally dramatic as exciting as the galvanising effect on the institution, has been

the personal impact on those taking part. More so than any other training undertaken,

the effect of being encouraged to investigate complex and potentially controversial

areas of the college's life has been liberating and empowering. Despite the pressures

on time and workload, for at least four of those second year students en-route to an

MA, the experience has been truly life-changing as the following comments indicate:

Participant 1: "The most important professional development opportunity

I've ever had … Invaluable experience for me"

Participant 2: "I certainly rediscovered my love of learning … I have

really valued and appreciated the opportunity I have been

given – it was a real turning point for me"

Participant 3: "The programme has provided me with a platform to

move forward with my career … Frank, open discussion

and guidance have allowed me to think more creatively

and form judgements from a more informed basis"

Participant 4: "I would not normally have opted for any type of profes-

sional development which demanded so much written work

but I have really enjoyed doing it and it has taught me that

I can be successful in an area outside Science … The

course has made me feel valued and respected as an

employee and I think the money invested has been recouped

in terms of the changes in me as a leader"

Many references to the specific ways in which the research process has helped an

individual to understand and perform a given role are equally positive. The cadre of

change agents would seem to be well and truly formed.

In sum, it is the contention of this chapter that the Winstanley College-LJMU col-

laboration has done much to inspire significant professional development, to nurture

463

AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO CPD

464

the emergence of a core of potential change-agents or 'culture-stimulators'and thereby

to raise and deepen the quality of dialogue and debate over policy and strategy through-

out the institution as a whole. The involvement of the principal in the learning process

and the academic credibility provided by the university were both important ingredi-

ents. Perhaps uniquely in the further education sector, internal development at

Winstanley College is being influenced, and in some cases driven, by a research/

action learning focus by which members of the organisation are informing the whole

nature and future direction of the institution. It is not an over-statement to claim that

an imaginative and focused approach to CPD has played a major part in the nurturing

of a self-sustaining learning organisation.

REFERENCES

Agyris, C. and Schon, D. (1996) Organizational Learning 11. Theory, Method and Practice. Addison

Wesley. New York. N.Y.

Cordingley, P., Bell, M., Rundell, B. and Evans, D. (2003) The Impact of Collaborative CPD on Classroom

Teaching and Learning. In Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social

Science Research Unit, Institute of Education.

Day, C. (1999) Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer Press.

Department for Education and Employment (2001) Learning and Teaching: A Strategy for Professional

Development, DfEE 0071/2001. London: DfEE.

Department for Education and Skills (2004) Excellence and Enjoyment: Learning and Teaching in the

Primary Years, Annesley, Nottingham: DfES 05–2004 G.

Gregory, M. (1996) Developing Effective College Leadership for the Management of Educational Change.

Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, vol. 17, 4, pp. 46–51.

Harrison, R. (1996) Action Learning: Route or Barrier to the Learning Organization? The Journal of

Workplace learning, vol. 8, 6, pp. 27–38.

Hooper, A. (ed) (2001) Leadership Issues Raising Achievement in Horsfall, C. LSDA.

Knight, P. and Trowler, P. (2001) Departmental Leadership in Higher Education. Buckingham: SRHE and

Open University Press.

Morris, J, (1991) Action Learning the Long Haul, in Prior, J. (ed). Handbook of Training and Development.

Aldershot: Gower, pp. 661–28.

Pedlar, M. (1991) Action Learning In Practice, (2nd edition) Aldershot: Gower.

Revans, R. (1982) The Origins and Growth of Action Learning. Chartwell-Bratt: Bickley (London).

Senge, P. M. (1990) The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Double day.

New York. N.Y.

Senge, P. M. (1999) The Dance of Change . New York: Nicholas Brealey.

Simkins, T. and Lumby, J. (2002) Researching Leadership and Management. Research in Post Compulsory

education, vol. 7, 1, pp. 5–9.

Swieringa, J. and Wierdsma, A. (1992) Becoming a Learning Organization. Boston, MA: Addison Wesley.

MICHAEL AIELLO AND KEVIN WATSON

INTRODUCTION

Maori (the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand) students in the compulsory

schooling sector have historically performed less well than their non-Maori counter-

parts. This trend continues in Aotearoa/New Zealand in the twenty first century.

Research (Alton-Lee, 2002) reveals that teachers in mainstream schooling contexts have

lower expectations of Maori students, fail to effectively identify or reflect on how their

practice impacts on the educational experiences of these students, and have limited

support to address these particular issues. There is an urgent need to provide innovative

and effective teacher professional development that is both supportive and enabling, to

reverse the historical trends of Maori student underachievement. This chapter provides

an analysis of a New Zealand Ministry of Education professional development initiative,

the Te Kauhua Maori Mainstream Pilot project. Te Kauhua means the supports on a

waka (ocean going canoe) and is used as a metaphor in this instance, for participants

supporting each other on the same journey. Commissioned by the New Zealand Ministry

of Education, this was an exploratory project aimed at growing teacher capabilities and

cultural competencies through professional development initiatives.

Initiated in 2001, the pilot provided a number of schools the opportunity to

explore, trial and develop innovative models of professional development that

support teacher effectiveness in addressing the underachievement of Maori learners

in mainstream education. In 2004, a second phase of Te Kauhua was commissioned.

Six schools – two primary, two intermediate and two secondary – were selected to

participate in the project. The hypothesis underpinning both phases of the project was

that Maori student social and academic achievement outcomes will improve when

they see themselves reflected in a curriculum, and when teachers are supported to

become agents of change (Shortland-Nuku, 2000).

The Te Kauhua project was facilitated, managed and evaluated in authentic school

sites, for and by teachers, using action research models that contributed to the colla-

tion of each school's case study data. The professional development activities were

contextualised within individual teacher's practice settings, and they provided an

opportunity for schools to work toward developing their own strategies to address

Maori student under achievement, rather than imposing a 'one size fits all' approach.

This approach was critical, to expedite teacher's receptivity to modification and

development of their practice.

Findings from the Te Kauhua pilot suggest that contextualising professional devel-

opment within practice settings is a critical success factor in determining teachers'

465

RUTH GORINSKI

32. BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY THROUGH

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A NEW ZEALAND

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 465–478.

466

receptivity to modification and development of their practice. It is also a key to

ensuring the establishment of inclusive learning communities, and strong participatory

leadership of professional development.

As we begin to grow teacher capability in terms of enhanced attitudes, expectations,

skills and professional practice, we will go a long way toward building professional

learning communities that foster a reduction in the disparities between Maori and

non-Maori student achievement. The findings of this study are significant for educators

who are interested in building leadership capability through professional development

activities, particularly in bi and/or multi cultural contexts. Clearly there is ample

scope for further research into professional development initiatives and their role in

enhancing leadership efficacy.

This chapter will first discuss the theoretical context of the research. The methodology

used in the study will then be presented, detailing the research design, data collection

and data analysis methods and the general context of the study. Selected findings will

be presented and lessons for ongoing practice highlighted. Some critical success fac-

tors arising from the study are identified, and barriers to potential success noted.

WHAT DOES THE LITERATURE TELL US?

Quality teaching, underpinned by a commitment to caring, collaborative, consultative

relationships (Bishop and Glynn, 1999; Gorinski and Abernethy, 2003), is identified

as a key lever for high quality outcomes in terms of retention and success for diverse

student groups. Research based evidence reveals that in New Zealand, between 40

and 55% of variance in student performance in the compulsory sector is attributable

to differences between teachers and classes, while only 6 to 19% is attributable to

specific school variables (Hargreaves et al ., 1998; Cuttance, 2001). There is clear

evidence then, that teachers'utilisation of pedagogical practices that are underpinned

by research (Calhoun, 2002), and which facilitate diverse students' access to infor-

mation and engagement in learning activities, is a key to quality teaching.

Growing teacher understanding and capability in the use of such pedagogical

approaches, necessitates the implementation of efficacious professional development

initiatives. Further, Higgins (2001) suggests that "school policies and structures,

student backgrounds … teacher's pedagogical styles and associated classroom

dynamics and the teachers' knowledge of learners …" (p. 52) are features of relevant

and dynamic professional development activities. Teachers in bi- and multi-cultural

classrooms face additional challenges in providing a quality learning and teaching

environment that is inclusive of the different cultural capital (Bishop and Glynn,

1999) that minority students bring. In order for teachers to be effective with the

diverse student groups they face, it is critical that they are supported to develop

appropriate and effective attitudes, knowledges, practices and competencies, through

professional development.

Alton-Lee (2002) identified twelve characteristics of quality teaching derived

from a synthesis of New Zealand and international research findings of evidence

linked to student outcomes in the compulsory sector. The twelve characteristics

RUTH GORINSKI

outlined in the following are generic, in that they are not curriculum or age-bound.

For a fuller discussion of these qualities, refer to Alton-Lee (2002). Quality teaching

that facilitates enhanced student achievement involves:

●focussing on student academic and social achievement, and facilitating expecta-

tions of high student outcomes across diverse learner groups

●the implementation of appropriate pedagogical practices that foster caring, inclusive,

and cohesive learning environments (Lieberman and Miller, 1999)

●the establishment of caring relationships between school and other cultural contexts

(Bishop and Glynn, 1999)

●responsiveness to the student learning process

●sufficiency and appropriateness of learning opportunities

●the development of learning tasks that are appropriate to a student's developmental

stage

●alignment of curriculum goals, resources, task design and teaching

●pedagogical approaches that scaffold, and provide appropriate feedback to facilitate

the learning process

●pedagogical approaches that promote learning, student independence, metacognitive

strategies and student engagement in critical discourse

●teacher and student engagement in constructive, goal-oriented assessment

●effective home-school partnerships that are focused on student learning

(Timperley and Robinson, 2002)

●whole school alignment on the goal of enhanced student learning and achievement

(Hopkins, 2001)

Clearly then, ongoing, informed, and evolving dialogue amongst policy makers, edu-

cators and researchers is necessary, in order to optimise achievement outcomes for

students. Central to this dialogue is an urgent need for the development of evidence

based, research-informed, professional development programmes that facilitate these

characteristics of quality teaching (Phillips et al ., 2001).

METHODOLOGY

This pilot project was guided by an action research, multiple case study approach

(Holly and Whitehead, 1986; McNiff, 1993; Stringer, 1996). The goal of action

research is to improve practice. In this instance, the practice that needed to be addressed

was the underachievement of Maori students in mainstream (a generic term used in

New Zealand to encapsulate the 'traditional' school system versus alternative schools

such as kura kaupapa – full Maori language immersion schools) classes nationwide.

Action research involves a step by step process of improvement, that is monitored over

varying lengths of time and by a variety of data gathering mechanisms (McNiff, 1993,

1996). The ensuing feedback may then be translated into adaptations, modifications,

directional changes and redefinitions as necessary, in order to bring about long term

change and benefit to a school community (Cohen and Manion, 1997).

The Ministry of Education selected this methodology because of its appropriate-

ness to the focus of the study: to explore the variety of professional development

467

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY

468

approaches across 10 school clusters, with a focus on raising teacher capacity and

subsequently, enhanced outcomes for Maori students. Kemmis and McTaggart

(1982) define action research as:

A family of activities in curriculum development, professional develop-

ment, school improvement programmes and systems planning and policy

development. These activities have in common the identification of

strategies of planned action which are implemented and then systemati-

cally submitted to observation, reflection and change. Participants in the

action being considered are integrally involved in these activities.

Action research has four key characteristics (McNiff, 1988; Stringer, 1996). First, it is

situational – it involves diagnosing a problem or issue in a specific context and endeav-

ouring to solve or address it in that context. Second, action research is collaborative. It is

also participatory, as team members take part directly in implementing change. Finally,

action research is self-evaluative; that is, ongoing reflection leads to modification of

practices that are continuously evaluated within the context of cyclical improvement.

This action research based, multiple case study approach adopted by the Te

Kauhua pilot, provided an opportunity for all participants involved in the project to

monitor the effectiveness of their professional development activities. The focus was

upon continuous improvement through trialling, evaluating, reflecting modifying,

and implementing new pedagogical and interactional methodologies. In sum, this

case study focused on teacher and student experiences, and offers an example of an

effective and inclusive pedagogical approach to professional development that has

enhanced Maori student achievement.

DATA COLLECTION

A number of data collection methods were utilised across participating schools. The

primary data sources were interviews, questionnaires, surveys, journals and other

sources of document analyses, standardised tests, focus group discussions, school

statistical data, personal development plans, student attendance and retention data,

school entry data and examination results (Patton, 1990; Weber, 1990; Hakim, 1992;

Fowler, 1993; Krueger, 1994; Anderson, 1998). These multiple sources of data col-

lection provided varied perspectives on the impact of the multi-various professional

development programmes implemented across participating schools.

DATA ANALYSIS

This model of professional development provided opportunities for teachers to inte-

grate theory and practice as they reflected on their classroom practices and student

achievement data, and generated creative responses to identified concerns. Data

analysis and interpretation in this context then, was a guided procedure that involved

reflecting, drawing inferences and evaluating the project in stages.

The analysis and interpretation of data, sought to describe and explain the links

between teachers' practice and students' social and academic achievement outcomes

RUTH GORINSKI

within a set of conceptually specified analytic categories (Bogdan and Taylor, 1975;

Huberman and Miles, 1994). The analytic categories were developed from an exam-

ination of the student data, teacher data and document analyses. Much activity of an

incidental nature occurred as discussion amongst teachers. The interpretation of data

should then be treated as a reflection of a situation specific approach, which warrants

ongoing investigation and monitoring.

SCHOOLS INVOLVED

Seventeen schools, constituting ten 'clusters' of both urban and rural schools from a

selected geographical zone encompassing Auckland in the north and Christchurch in

the south, were involved in the Te Kauhua pilot. Seven schools were secondary and

ten were primary/intermediate. There was a range of co-educational and single-sex

schools involved, and all were state schools excepting one integrated Catholic pri-

mary school. The decile rating of participating schools ranged from decile one to

decile six. All schools in New Zealand are assigned a decile rating. Decile ratings

range from 1 (lowest) to 10 and are reflective of a school's socio-economic rating.

The lower the decile, the higher the government funding available. Figure 32.1 iden-

tifies the school clusters, regions and decile ratings:

RESPONDENTS

All primary schools involved all teaching staff in the pilot initiative. Secondary

schools however, tended to work with target groups of teachers either at year group

level, or in specified curriculum areas.

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BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY

School/Cluster Region Decile

Waitakere College Auckland 4

Rotorua Lakes High

Mokoia Intermediate

Rotorua 6

Rotorua Boys High Rotorua 4

Tauranga Boys College Tauranga 5

Te Akau ki Papamoa Primary

Greerton Village Primary

Tauranga 3

Taumarunui High Taumarunui 2

Wanganui City College Wanganui 2

Waitara Central Primary

St Josephs Primary

Waitara 1

Bishopdale Primary

Northcote Primary

Gilberthorpe Primary

Christchurch 2

Greymouth High

Runanga Primary

Greymouth 4

Figure 32.1. School clusters, regions and decile ratings of schools in the study

470

Each cluster school appointed a project facilitator/s for the two and a half years of

the pilot. Facilitator employment ranged from pro-rated to full time positions. Ten

facilitators were Maori and three were non-Maori. The facilitator's role was to

co-ordinate and facilitate in-school professional development initiatives that would

build teacher capability, thereby contributing towards improved academic and social

outcomes for Maori students in their respective schools. A number of schools also

utilised educational consultants and other professionals, for example, resource

teachers of learning and behaviour (RTLB) or resource teachers of Maori (RTM), to

support their programmes. Principals of all schools were involved in the project, and

a number of schools had active Maori parent/whanau (family) groups contributing to

the initiative.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The data collection processes implemented throughout this inquiry have been

aligned to those adopted by the American Anthropological Association. Consistent

with most qualitative investigation in the field of education, this research was overt

in nature. Principals and/or facilitators in each school, discussed the project both ver-

bally and in writing with staff, governance and parents/whanau of Maori students.

At the data-gathering phase, a major element in overt research is 'informed consent'

(Keats, 1988; Glesne and Peshkin, 1992). Through informed consent, potential

informants were made aware that their participation was voluntary, confidential and

that their anonymity would be maintained (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992; Burns, 1994).

This information was conveyed in a letter that was sent to parents, staff and students,

seeking their cooperation in the data collection process. All participants completed

informed consent documentation.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The data suggest that Maori students will achieve when teachers modify their practice

in response to professional development activities that generate critical reflection.

Across the participating cluster schools, there was evidence of enhanced teacher

expectation, attitudes, skills and practice, and a fostering of the development of pro-

fessional learning communities. Further, the data collected indicate improved social

and academic outcomes for Maori students. There was also a high degree of consistency

in the way teachers involved in the pilot felt about their collective professional devel-

opment experiences and ongoing needs, in terms of building leadership capability.

Key outcomes of the Te Kauhua initiative revealed in the data across school clusters,

centred upon four key factors including:

●school learning community development,

●enhanced teacher efficacy,

●improved social and academic outcomes for Maori students and

●enhanced family/whanau – school relationships.

RUTH GORINSKI

SCHOOL LEARNING COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

As a result of initiatives implemented in the context of Te Kauhua, there was evidence

of the development of professional learning communities within schools. These com-

munities focussed upon relationship building, teaching and learning, and a staff

responsibility for data collection. Relationship building was evident in enhanced

teacher collegiality and collaboration (Bishop and Glynn, 1999; Lieberman and

Miller, 1999; Poskitt, 2001). This was reflected in, for example, the adoption of

co-operative teaching approaches, peer observations and feedback, and professional

reading circles. As well as enhanced staff relationships, the pilot facilitated improved

relationships between teachers and students and students and students.

The embedding of the underpinning principles and philosophies of Te Kauhua into

some schools' policies and procedures, to facilitate sustainability of the successes,

further fostered the growth of some school learning communities. This approach

appeared to unite staff as they shared a common concern for Mäori student achievement.

Finally, a heightened awareness of the need for regular, co-ordinated data collection

and analysis to both inform the professional development process, and to evidence

shifts in Maori student academic and social achievement, contributed to the realisa-

tion of learning communities across participating schools. Staff were motivated by an

evidence-based approach to professional development that sought to address specific

student learning needs, and this appeared to support the realisation of professional

learning communities.

ENHANCED TEACHER EFFICACY

A critical component in raising Maori student achievement is enhanced pedagogical

practice. Across school clusters, there was evidence of teachers trialling a range of

different teaching strategies. These included for example, the development of cultur-

ally located practice, including student involvement in curriculum co-construction

(Bishop and Glynn, 1999) and the integration of te reo Maori (Maori language) and

tikanga Maori (Maori protocols and ways of doing and knowing) into teaching and

learning programmes. Further, the data indicate a heightened awareness amongst

teachers of the importance of discursive pedagogical approaches such as peer coach-

ing, co-operative learning activities, feedback and feed forward techniques. The shar-

ing of lesson objectives with students, was also identified as a key tool in addressing

Maori student underachievement.

IMPROVED SOCIAL AND ACADEMIC OUTCOMES

FOR MAORI STUDENTS

The study clearly evidenced the crucial role of professional development in helping

teachers to understand not only the importance of relationships, but also how to form

and nurture them effectively. Teachers demonstrated that they cared about Maori

student success and achievement in a variety of ways, including: communicating

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BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY

472

clear expectations about achievement and success; engaging students in the learning

process; challenging Maori students to persist with their learning; and taking time to

learn about Maori students' needs, interests and backgrounds, in order to overcome

potential or actual barriers to Maori student learning. Where teachers exhibited such

behaviours and attitudes in their communication, there was evidence across school

clusters of enhanced literacy and/or numeracy outcomes for Maori students, as well

as increased Maori student attendance, participation and engagement in classroom

related activities.

ENHANCED FAMILY/WHANAU – SCHOOL RELATIONSHIPS

In addition to the significance of enhanced staff interactions, the findings highlight

the importance of forming relationships with various stakeholders in the school

community, including parents/caregivers, students and kaumatua and kuia (Maori

elders, highly respected amongst Maori). The fostering of these relationships was

critical to Maori students' success, and to the creation of optimal learning conditions

for all participants in the pilot. Further, concomitant with enhanced school-whanau/

community collaboration and consultation, was an increase in whanau involvement

in school community activities.

Professional development plays a pivotal role in assisting teachers to understand

not only the importance of relationships, but also how to build and nurture such rela-

tionships. This is consistent with the school improvement literature (Fullan, 2001;

Stoll, et al ., 2002; Timperley and Robinson, 2002) that emphasises the strong corre-

lation between successful stakeholder relationships and enhanced student achieve-

ment outcomes.

LESSONS FOR ONGOING PRACTICE

There are six clear implications for teachers and school communities from this initial

pilot study in Aotearoa/New Zealand. These are outlined in the following discussion.

Improved efficacy in teacher professional development

First, one of the keys to effecting enhanced social and academic achievement out-

comes for Maori students in mainstream settings, is improved efficacy in teacher pro-

fessional development. Professional development must focus first and foremost on

building and developing positive interactional approaches (Bishop and Glynn, 1999;

Gorinski and Abernethy, 2003; Gorinski, 2005). The single factor common to all par-

ticipating schools, was the development of caring, collaborative, consultative rela-

tionships between teachers and students; students and students; teachers and

teachers; teachers and whanau, and school communities and whanau. The findings

clearly indicate that without a primary focus on relationship building amongst all

groups comprising the school community, the effectiveness of any endeavours to

enhance Maori student achievement will be severely compromised.

RUTH GORINSKI

Relationship building

Second, schools embarking on a journey such as Te Kauhua, would benefit from

building professional development activities upon the application of tikanga Maori

principles. Whakawhanaunatanga – relationship building; tautoko – genuine support

and endorsement; tino rangatiratanga – active recognition of the mana (prestige and

integrity) of the tangata whenua (local people); and manaakitanga – meeting the

physical and emotional needs of all people (Timperley and Robinson, 2002; Sinclair,

2003), are key factors to the success of such projects.

Culturally responsive professional development (McAllister and Irvine, 2000) that

focuses upon raising teachers' pedagogical knowledge, cultural competencies, and

understanding of Maori students, so that the different cultural capital (Bishop and

Glynn, 1999) they bring to the school context is understood, valued, and scaffolded,

is an urgent priority. Whilst such an approach takes time, the Te Kauhua journey

clearly evidences the benefits of these endeavours in terms of enhanced outcomes for

Maori students.

Involvement of leadership

Third, principal, senior management team, and governance support, involvement,

and on-going commitment and participation are critical success factors, and key

components to the sustainability of such projects. Principals, who foster a culture of

continuous improvement through collaborative practices, (Fullan, 2001) and the

active engagement in, and encouragement of action research to refine the teaching

knowledge base, are pivotal to successful professional development initiatives. Such

principals will ensure that the goals of any professional development initiative are

embedded in school policies and procedures to ensure sustainability.

This pilot study clearly evidenced the benefits of a collaborative, inclusive leadership

approach. Schools in this study that initiated professional development activities

without the active leadership of the principal experienced greater resistance amongst

staff, miscommunication, and more systemic difficulties in terms of prioritising pro-

fessional development initiatives, than schools with strong, active leadership.

Facilitator knowledge and skill

Fourth, the appointment of facilitators who have the requisite knowledge, skills and

abilities to support and guide professional development activities, is critical. In the

absence of strong facilitation skills, initiatives were more inclined to focus on super-

ficial professional development activities as opposed to in-depth, reflective based

activity. Further, the clear articulation of project goals, to a range of stakeholders, is

a foundation for success. This necessitates sound facilitator communication skills.

Support for the facilitator/s from the principal and senior management team is a pre-

requisite to ensuring on-going capacity building in school communities.

Refined research methodology

Fifth, the development of a refined research methodology as opposed to randomly

located, disjointed activity, is a key to meaningful data collection and analysis, and

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BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY

474

the ultimate credibility of such a project (Calhoun, 2002). Attention to the identification

of appropriate data gathering mechanisms and evaluation tools at the outset of any

professional development initiative, will provide a foundation for ensuring measurable

student achievement outcomes. The Te Kauhua pilot highlighted the need for the

collection of baseline data and ongoing systematic formative and summative data

gathering, to evidence shifts in Maori student achievement. It also emphasised the

importance of facilitator and/or teacher training in the areas of data gathering and

analysis.

Action research has the potential to change the professional climate in a school so

that continual formal learning is both expected and supported (McNiff, 1996). Such

research asks educators to examine their practice and its context, explore the

research base for ideas to adopt in their classroom, compare what they find to their

current practice, participate in training to support identified changes and study the

effects of such initiatives on themselves, their students, and their colleagues

(Calhoun, 2002).

Irrespective of whether action research is used as a school improvement mechanism,

or as an individual professional development tool, it affords teachers the opportunity

to utilise current research, add to their own knowledge and practice base, and in

doing so, fosters more intentional and effective classroom learning conditions. The

Te Kauhua pilot highlighted the benefits of such an approach for on going profes-

sional development in teacher education contexts.

Building leadership capability takes time

Finally, it takes time and commitment to develop professional learning communities

(Guskey and Huberman, 1995; Darling-Hammond, 1996) with a shared language and

understanding of pedagogical knowledge, skills and practices that are enabling of

Maori student success. All schools involved in the Te Kauhua project experienced the

frustration of 'slow beginnings'. Community liaison was frequently time consuming,

and working towards stakeholder buy-in took varying amounts of time amongst par-

ticipating schools. Such 'growing pains'however, are part of any exploratory journey

and provide a way forward in terms of shifting a school culture and maximising aca-

demic and social outcomes for Maori students.

Upon reflection of the Te Kauhua pilot, participating schools identified a number

of factors that can inform ongoing work in determining a framework and infrastruc-

ture for building leadership capability through professional development. These can

be broadly categorised as critical success factors and barriers to success for school

communities embarking upon similar professional development journeys.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

The following highlight some of the factors identified by participants in the pilot, as

critical ingredients to the success of this project:

●the unqualified support, participation, commitment and leadership of the princi-

pal, senior management team and governance

RUTH GORINSKI

●the commitment of leadership to embed change into school wide policies and

procedures to ensure sustainability

●effective community/whanau/stakeholder consultation from project conception

●effective relationship building amongst staff

●full staff involvement and a receptivity to change; a degree of flexibility, and

motivation to participate

●a recognition that change takes time

●financial support for teacher release for professional development, resource

preparation and the monitoring of project direction and achievements

●recognition of staff as professionals and the provision of quality professional

development when using 'out-of-hours'time to deliver professional development

activities

●regular, meaningful, and detailed evaluation and measurement of change to

inform the cycle of continuous improvement

●reflection of Maori culture within the school community, for example Maori staff,

participation in marae wananga (learning in traditional Maori settings) and atten-

dance at kapa haka (performing arts) competitions

●facilitator experience, knowledge, skills, and the ability to communicate

effectively

●professional development for facilitators and project co-ordinators

BARRIERS TO POTENTIAL SUCCESS

Respondents also articulated a number of factors considered to be obstructive to suc-

cessful professional development initiatives:

●high staff turnover – principals and teachers

●lack of adoption of the initiative by the whole school community

●lack of support, participation and leadership by the principal, management team

and/or governance

●failure to position the initiative as a priority

●systemic organisational deficiencies, for example meeting clashes

●poor communication amongst stakeholders including the principal, teachers,

facilitators, parents, whanau and the wider community

●pre-existing beliefs and attitudes, and a resistance to change amongst stakeholders

●student lack of attendance and/or student transience

●inappropriate data collection tools and/or a lack of teacher/facilitator expertise in

data gathering and analysis techniques

●inadequate or irregular assessment and reporting systems that preclude the effec-

tive monitoring of change strategies on student achievement

CONCLUSION

Researchers, educationalists and policy makers share a common view that enhanced

student achievement is dependent upon responsive teachers, who are active participants

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BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITY

476

in on-going, high quality professional development activities (Guskey and

Huberman, 1995; Darling-Hammond, 1996; Robertson and Allan, 1999; Fullan,

2001; Guskey, 2002). Such professional development is viewed as an essential

mechanism for teachers to improve their knowledge and expertise, thereby raising

their capability to contribute generally to enhanced student learning and achievement

Further, if we are to address in particular , the issue of enhanced Maori student

achievement, professional development activities that focus on reciprocal, power-

sharing relationships in the teaching and learning context are fundamental (Bishop

and Glynn, 1999; Gorinski and Abernethy, 2003; Gorinski, 2005).

It is critical then, that teachers engage in ongoing activity to update and expand

their professional knowledge bases, in addition to improving or reviewing their

practices to ensure they are best meeting the learning needs of an increasingly diverse

student base. The Te Kauhua pilot was a Ministry of Education response to the recog-

nition of the importance of teacher professional development in reducing disparity,

leading to the enhancement of Maori student achievement in mainstream schools.

The continuing challenge for school communities lies in identifying strategies that

sustain and increase the new knowledge bases and practices that support enhanced

teacher capability, in order to effectively continue facilitating improved Maori

student achievement outcomes. The Te Kauhua pilot findings clearly evidence that

sustainability is facilitated in school learning communities that embed within their

policies and practices, principles and mechanisms that support an ongoing cycle of

continuous improvement through professional development (Higgins, 2001).

In sum, Camburn (1997) reminds us that while teacher professional development

is imperative, "our public school system is ultimately in the business of educating

students not teachers" (p. 60). The creation of environments that are conducive to

teacher learning must therefore, be tested against the standard of improved Maori

student achievement, if we are to see real outcomes. The Te Kauhua Maori

Mainstream Pilot has enabled rich exploration of a variety of professional develop-

ment approaches that evidence a growing body of knowledge of effective leadership

interactions and strategies that are resulting in improved outcomes for Maori

students.

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and Sons.

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RUTH GORINSKI

Camburn, E. (1997) The Impact of Professional Community on Teacher Learning and Instructional

Practice. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago: Chicago.

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Hargreaves, A., Lieberman, A., Fullan, M. and Hopkins, D. (1998) International Handbook of

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Lincoln, Y. (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research London: Sage Publications, pp. 428–444.

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Educational Research Ltd.

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University Press.

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Sage Publications.

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Teachers College Press.

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Routledge.

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Phillips, G., McNaughton, S. and MacDonald, S. (2001) Picking Up the Pace: Effective Literacy

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Ministry of Education Auckland: The Child Literacy Foundation and the Woolf Fisher Research

Centre.

Poskitt, J. (2001) Schools Doing it for Themselves. Successful Professional Development, set 1, 2001,

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Robertson, J. and Allan, R. (1999) Teachers Working in Isolation? Enhancing Professional Conversations.

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RUTH GORINSKI

TE KOHUHUTANGA KI TE RANGAHAU – INTRODUCTION

TO THE RESEARCH

The motivation for the research arose from my role as a Päkehä (European New

Zealand) teacher educator with responsibility for preparing secondary school art

teachers to implement national curriculum policy in visual arts education. Embodied

in New Zealand statutes, including educational policy, are the principles of Te Tiriti o

Waitangi-Treaty of Waitangi (1840). For example, in its overarching policy statement

for schools, The New Zealand Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education, 1993,

p. 1), the Ministry declares that "it acknowledges the value of the Treaty of Waitangi

and of New Zealand's bicultural identity …" The curriculum statement pertinent to

my teacher education programme, The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry

of Education, 2000, p. 9), states that "… toi Mäori, the arts of the Mäori, are integral

to our sense of a distinctive, evolving national identity". Further, in respect of the

visual arts discipline in the arts curriculum, "all students should have opportunities to

learn about traditional and contemporary Mäori art forms" (ibid, p. 71). A resource for

teachers (Ministry of Education, 2004, p. 2), published subsequent to my research,

uses a new nomenclature – 'Maori visual culture'. Here the Ministry declares that

"Mäori visual culture is a living and significant dimension of New Zealand society

and should be taught in all our schools with knowledge and respect".

In Aotearoa-New Zealand teachers as agents of the Crown share responsibility

with the indigenous Mäori for bicultural development within educational settings.

Thus, bicultural educational policy requires that I prepare my pre-service teachers in

respect of teaching Mäori art/visual culture. In the 1980s when I entered teacher

education I saw the task of teaching Mäori art as relatively straightforward. In the

intervening years I have become increasingly conscious of a number of dilemmas

which complicate the issue of bicultural policy in education. These issues, confirmed

by a survey conducted in 1996 in my geographical location, Auckland-Tamaki

Makaurau (Smith, 1996), and by a recently completed research project (Smith,

2005), are of concern to visual arts teacher educators throughout the country. First is

the dilemma of a largely non-Mäori secondary school teaching force required to

fulfil bicultural obligations. Second, there are comparatively few Mäori holding the

(Western) qualifications requisite for entry to tertiary institutions and colleges of

education and subsequent employment in secondary schools. A third dilemma is the

very small number of heads of art departments who are Mäori, thereby limiting the

possibilities of equitable leadership. The fourth dilemma, the most problematic in

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33. A CASE STUDY: THE DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

IN EDUCATION POLICY AND VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION

PRACTICE IN AOTEAROA-NEW ZEALAND.

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 479–494.

480

view of the demographic composition of teachers and students, is the limited and

often superficial knowledge and experience that the majority of my predominantly

non-Mäori students have of Mäoritanga (traditions, practices and beliefs), tikanga

Mäori (respect for cultural values), and of traditional and contemporary Mäori art

forms when they enter the visual arts teacher education programme.

These dilemmas motivated me to investigate the realities of schooling under bicul-

tural policies. Underpinning my research were two key questions: What is the history

and political and social agenda which lies behind New Zealand's bicultural education

policy? What are the perceptions, behaviours and performances of the participants in

relation to the bicultural curriculum imperative?

NGA HUA A NGA TUHITUHINGA – WHAT I FOUND IN THE LITERATURE

Attitudes towards Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty of Waitangi

I took as my starting point Te Tiriti o Waitangi – Treaty of Waitangi signed in 1840 by

over 500 Mäori chiefs and by William Hobson representing the British Crown. My

intention was not to research the treaty itself although the topic required an intensive

search of the literature related to it, and subsequent events. Although the treaty

established the signatories as equal partners holding equal rights and privileges the

interpretation of this declaration of equality and its legal status have been argued ever

since (Orange, 1987). There is evidence that while the treaty was obedient to the

prevailing colonial policy of protection of the rights of the indigenous, scholars such

as Orange (1987), Kawharu (1989), Renwick (1991) and Brownlie (1992) claimed it

was an expedient, if reluctant, solution adopted by the Crown to control unruly

factions, Päkehä and Mäori. Päkehä historian, Orange (1987), wrote of differences in

interpretation by Mäori and the British colonists, not just in wordings in English and

Mäori, but in understandings of the concept of tino rangatiratanga (sovereignty). She

noted successive provincial governments' subversion of the original intentions of the

treaty which culminated in a judicial ruling in 1877 that the treaty was a 'nullity'.

This declaration held sway until the 1970s rendering the treaty, and the protections

Mäori expected from it, completely without force.

It was clear from the literature that despite the treaty partnership Päkehä power and

authority has prevailed. Although there was some evidence of often paternalistic,

humanist attitudes, assimilation has been overtly and covertly the prevailing policy.

Orange (1987, p. 2) maintained that "Europeans, in particular, have shifted their posi-

tion on the treaty to suit their purposes". Mäori scholar and activist, Walker (1973,

p. 111), is adamant that "the assimilationist policies which contradicted the intention

of the treaty inflicted on subsequent generations of Mäori children an identity con-

flict that persists to the present day". Further, he claimed that the destruction of their

culture has developed both a defeatist and an aggressive response from Mäori who

seek an identity outside the Päkehä conventions.

Evident also in the literature was substantial disaffection with such assimilationist

policy amongst Mäori and some Päkehä (Jones et al., 1990; Pearson, 1991;

JILL SMITH

Openshaw and McKenzie, 1997). It was within such disaffection, and in a climate of

liberal humanism fostered by the economic prosperity of the 1970s, that the seeds of

'biculturalism' were planted. An educated Mäori middle class with a foothold in the

professions could employ European/Päkehä stratagems. A Labour government, itself

an outcome of working class rejection of the hierarchical power of the British ruling

classes and prompted by its own sense of 'Päkehä guilt' was responsive to growing

Mäori protest and affirmation of rights (Rata, 2000). In 1974 the Labour government

enacted statutes establishing bicultural policy.

The literature expounding attitudes towards Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty of

Waitangi, beliefs about European/Päkehä dominance, questions of equality, and the

impact of the treaty on education informed the research methodology.

Interpretations of 'biculturalism'

Evident in the literature pertaining to biculturalism was substantial controversy over

the often-conflicting interpretations of 'bicultural identity' and 'biculturalism'

referred to in The New Zealand Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education,

1993) and The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 2000). A

review of other curriculum documents, for example the Social Studies in the

New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 1997, p. 56), found that bicultur-

alism was defined as "describing the interactions, relationships, and sharing of

understandings, practices, and beliefs between two cultures: in New Zealand, these

cultures are Mäori and Päkehä". Simplistic definitions which focused on notions of

two distinct cultures in one country, or having or combining two cultures, were con-

sidered by Clark (2002, p. 96) to be the minimalist concept of biculturalism

embraced by most New Zealanders. He claimed that there was unlikely to be "an

equivalent measure of support for biculturalism in the sense of equality".

Varying Päkehä viewpoints were found in the literature. Christie (1999), for example,

resented what he saw as the privileged treatment of Mäori, arguing that within a democ-

racy individual human rights must prevail over ethnic affiliations. Christie claimed that

Mäori are given unfair advantages in terms of compensations negotiated under the

Waitangi tribunal and provoke dissent by claims for independence and sovereignty. In

one of his commentaries, 'Brainwashing in Schools', Christie (1999, p. 71) stated:

The situation is created in New Zealand where children with even a slight

trace of Mäori ethnicity, or none at all … are coerced into displaying

'Mäori culture', into believing notions of kotahitanga, kingitanga, and

rangitiratanga, and to assume a partisan ethnic stance … All such think-

ing, though based on bunkum, is taught in schools by government direc-

tive and enforcement, with the support of academia from where it is

piped throughout.

(1999, p. 71)

Päkehä scholar, Rata (2000), an advocate in the 1970s and 1980s of biculturalism as

serving purposes of political justice and social inclusion, wrote of the white humanist

middle class sensing defeat and retreating in the face of increasing ethnification and

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A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

482

indigenisation by Mäori who reject the paternalism of biculturalism and multicultur-

alism. Rata (2003, pp. 9–10) has since 're-thought' biculturalism. She claims that

"despite the democratic ideals of the early Mäori and non-Mäori biculturalists" a

misleading identification of culture with ethnicity has given rise to "an anti-democratic

biculturalism".

Mäori groups, notably within a tribal definition, expressed clear views on bicul-

turalism. They rejected what they saw as the oppressive policies of a post-colonial

government, seeing their future as lying within an ethnic interpretation of culture, in

which race marks both point of entry and disbarment. As example, Mäori artist and

scholar, Jahnke (1995, pp. 9–10), claimed that biculturalism is a deliberate Western

construct, a means by which the power-holding sector can ameliorate discontent and

salve conscience without surrendering supremacy. He declared:

For biculturalism to be more than a pathetic fallacy requires empathetic

negotiation across the boundaries of cultural reality. To presuppose a

priority of vision defined solely by Western perception merely perpetuates

the cultural capital of the élite as the sole criterion of cultural legitimacy.

My research was informed by the marked difference of opinion evident in the litera-

ture about what constitutes biculturalism. Although bicultural models of education

promulgated by the Department of Education (1976) and the Director General of

Education (Renwick, 1984) emphasised Mäori-Päkehä interaction there remain

many issues for Mäori. Foremost is an education system geared to a mono-cultural

Päkehä frame of reference (Walker, 1973; Bishop and Glynn, 1999; Hall and Bishop,

2001). Claims by Mäori that educational policies and practices were, and continue to

be, developed in a framework of colonisation were a critical part of the research.

However, as an educator in a state institution I felt bound to accept the particular concept

of biculturalism that is written into education statutes, one that appears to rest on an

ethnic determination of culture.

Problems of defining 'Mäori art'

The requirement for all students, and not just Mäori, to receive a bicultural interpretation

of visual arts education posed a significant question for the research – what is Mäori art?

It was clear from the literature that Mäori art was considered as complex and

differentiated as art of the Western world. Evident as much in Mäori scholarship as

in Päkehä interpretation, a significant variety of opinions were expressed. For Mäori,

as for many indigenous peoples, art and culture were seen as inseparable. Included

are forms that have been made for personal and community use, and which have

pervaded the whole way of Mäori life. For Mäori these are much more than objects

of beauty; they are the embodiment of spiritual and ancestral power (Hakiwai, 1996).

Mäori scholars themselves offered significantly differing definitions. At one end of

the spectrum Mäori kaumätua (revered elder), Mead (1984, p. 75), considered that

"Mäori art is made by Mäori artists working within Mäori stylistic traditions of the

iwi for the iwi". Hakiwai (1996, p. 54), supporting Mead's view, explained that what

the Western world has called Mäori art, Mäori call taonga:

JILL SMITH

Taonga or treasures embody all those things that represent our

culture … Our treasures are much more than objets d'art for they are

living in every sense of the word and carry the love and pride of those

who fashioned them, handled and caressed them, and passed them on

for future generations.

Taonga, thus, has the mana or status of cultural property to be protected in treaty

terms by the state which must take responsibility for it and ensure education about its

meanings, origins and mana.

In contrast, contemporary Mäori artists, curators, and commentators such as

Panaho (1988) argued that Mäori art has always been innovative and responsive to

change and may quite properly employ Western materials and techniques in inter-

preting Mäori ideology. Hotere (cited in Davis, 1976, p. 29) took issue with being

labelled a 'Mäori artist'. In Hotere's oft-quoted statement, "I am Mäori by birth and

upbringing. As far as my work is concerned this is coincidental", he denied that

ethnicity had relevance in his art making. Conversely, Walsh (cited in Poland, 1999,

p. 2), defined Mäori art by ethnicity of the maker, claiming that "Mäori art is simply

work by artists of Mäori descent, regardless of how it looks". Yet another position,

one which did not specify making or ownership, was taken by Mäori cultural com-

mentator Parekowhai (cited in Poland, 1999, p. 2). "Mäori art", she said, "is art where

Mäori can see themselves in the picture, either through visual motifs, reference to

history, or subject matter. If it speaks to Mäori, of Mäori, then it is Mäori".

The perspectives presented by a range of scholars, artists, curators and commentators

provided the framework for investigating research participants' understandings of

Mäori art, its forms, and its significance.

The place of Mäori art in visual arts education

The statutory requirement for schools to teach Mäori art as part of visual arts educa-

tion demanded a close examination of national education policy and curriculum.

Analysis of the documents indicated that prior to the 1950s Mäori art had been

systematically rejected from art education in New Zealand schools. This rejection

was grounded in policies of a dominant Päkehä society which, even in its Native

Schools, adhered rigorously to a British model of curriculum. From the 1950s the

then Department of Education provided some resources in Mäori art to primary

schools, but it was not until 1975 that a new School Certificate Art prescription

(Department of Education, 1975), innovative in its time, required secondary school

students to study the forms and significance of some examples of Mäori art. A

requirement of the current curriculum, The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum

(Ministry of Education, 2000) is, likewise, to provide opportunities for students to

learn about traditional and contemporary Mäori art forms. For the National

Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), implemented in 2002, year 11

visual arts students (mostly 15 year olds) are assessed on their ability to "research art

and artworks from Mäori and European traditions and their context" (New Zealand

Qualifications Authority, 2000).

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A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

484

Tracing curriculum changes in the literature was an important part of the research.

It provided an incentive to investigate the view of expatriate New Zealander, Graeme

Chalmers (1999, p. 176), that art education in colonial New Zealand was (and still is)

"a major agent of colonisation and cultural imperialism".

The varied viewpoints on Te Tiriti o Waitangi -Treaty of Waitangi, biculturalism,

Mäori art, and the place of Mäori art in visual arts education presented in the litera-

ture heighten the dilemma for visual arts teachers. They raised questions of how

curriculum demands are to be met when art teachers are confronted with contradictory

definitions of Mäori art, who may and can teach it, and who will fulfil this state

curriculum requirement in a system that has a pitifully small number of Mäori art

teachers. These questions have impacted upon my role as a Päkehä teacher educator.

Despite a hardening of attitude towards the protection of Mäori traditions and knowl-

edge and towards limiting access to those traditions and knowledge by non-Mäori

(Whitecliffe, 1999) I have received much support and since the 1980s have developed

strategies to support non-Mäori (and Mäori) art teachers to learn about and teach

Mäori art education (Smith, 1996, 2001, 2003a, b).

Whatever the stance I take, however, I am still faced with the dilemma – May I

teach Mäori art? It is, I believe, a national dilemma and was the raison d'être of this

research (Smith, 2001). It is a question I continue to pose to art educators nationwide

(Smith, 2003a).

NGA TIKANGA A NGA RANGAHAU – HOW I CONDUCTED

THE RESEARCH

My research did not seek to resolve the dilemma. Instead, I sought to evaluate what

was happening in a sample of schools in response to the bicultural curriculum

requirement. Using qualitative research methodology I conducted an interpretative

case study to raise issues and inform dialogue about this particular institutional policy.

It provided an opportunity, in Eisner's (1991, p. 169) terms, to "confer my own

signature upon my work".

The settings for the case study, those in which art teaching represented my

specialist territory of secondary art education, had national policy and curricula in

common. They comprised nga kura tuarua (three secondary schools), each differing

in physical and environmental contexts. To protect their identity I named them Te

Kura Hine (the girls' school), Te Kura Tama (the boys' school), and Te Kura Hine-

Tama (the co-educational school). The selection, based on Patton's (1990) criterion

sampling, included low to high decile classification (based on socio-economic sta-

tus), geographical location and ethnic composition. In one school there was up to

50% Mäori and/or Pacific Islands students. In another there was a wide range of stu-

dent ethnicities, and in the third school the population was predominantly 'white'

mono-cultural. Twenty-seven participants, nine in each school, and myself as the key

instrument (Eisner, 1991), were involved in the research.

Consistent with case study research, participant perspectives were gained through

qualitative methods which did not privilege one method over another (Wolcott, 1994;

JILL SMITH

Stake, 2000). Critical document analysis, as the catalyst, was followed by observa-

tions, then interviews. Referred to by Wolcott (1994) as examining, enquiring and

experiencing, these methods were selected to gain multiple perspectives of the issues

underlying the research, and the implications of these for my pre-service teacher

education programme.

The data provided by the inquiry formed the substance of narrative vignettes

(Erickson, 1986) in which I described events as vividly as possible to give the reader

a sense of 'being there'. To add credence to my research I adopted Eisner's (1991)

structural corroboration, multi-method techniques and analyst triangulation. I used

the coding and categorising processes recommended by Bogdan and Biklen (1992)

and Tolich and Davidson (1999) in order to focus on the interpretations which the

principals, art teachers and students gave to their own actions.

An interpretivist case study methodology requires scrupulous documentation,

cross-referencing, referral of field notes back to those interviewed, and a great deal

of what Wolcott calls "healthy scepticism" (Wolcott, 1994, p. 21). The issues of

biculturalism raised ethical concerns. Not only was I required to satisfy institutional

ethical protocols but had a self-imposed ethic to respond to. As a Päkehä teacher edu-

cator I am sensitive to Mäori attitudes towards Päkehä intrusion into Mäori cultural

territory. Throughout the research I scrutinised my own involvement with both Mäori

and Päkehä participants, aware of Stake's (2000) reminder that researchers are guests

in the private world of participants. I valued also Tolich and Davidson's (1999) advice

about the ethical principle that must override every piece of social research in

Aotearoa-New Zealand – to think of it as a small town in order to protect the people

in the study.

NGA HUA A NGA PUKAPUKA – WHAT I READ IN

THE DOCUMENTS

'Examining' involved the analysis of national curriculum documents and schools'

charters, mission statements and art department schemes. As example, the Thomas

Report on The Post-primary School Curriculum (Department of Education, 1943)

contained only one reference to Mäori, not in respect of art education but social stud-

ies. From 1945 Department of Education and Ministry of Education documents

showed a growing awareness of bicultural responsibility and a move from 'should' to

'must'. From the 1970s all art curriculum documents included requirements to offer

Mäori art in programmes, culminating in The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum

(Ministry of Education, 2000). I noted in successive documents the increasing use of

te reo Mäori (the Mäori language), albeit with English translations.

Analysis of the three schools' charters and mission statements showed a strong

link between the documents and the nature of the schools and communities in which

they were socially and economically located. Two sets of documents indicated strong

emphasis from Boards of Trustees and principals upon bicultural policy, while the

third made no reference to biculturalism. The following comments from the three

principals illustrate their attitudes towards acknowledging Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty

485

A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

486

of Waitangi in school policy:

Principal, T e Kura Hine-T ama: The eighth goal in our school charter is

"increased participation and success by Mäori through the advancement

of Mäori education initiatives, including education in te reo Mäori, con-

sistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi"

(Smith, 2001, p. 70)

Principal, T e K ura Hine: The Treaty of Waitangi has had a substantial

influence. The school's policy is called Tiriti o Waitangi … and it talks

about te reo me nga tikanga

(ibid, p. 83)

Principal, T e Kura T ama: There is no monitoring of inclusion of bicul-

tural imperatives … Heads of departments are not required to report on

whether the Treaty of Waitangi is referenced in schemes, a task I would

not agree to personally

(ibid, p. 83)

Analysis of art department schemes similarly illustrated differing attitudes. At Te

Kura Hine-Tama, where both teacher participants were Mäori, the art department

scheme was in the form of an Art Department Accountability Statement. This

contained a written undertaking between the Board of Trustees and staff that they

would support school policy in terms of biculturalism and the treaty. Te reo Mäori

was expected to be pronounced correctly (this was indeed confirmed in the

interviews with both Mäori and Päkehä students); study units related to Mäori art and

cultural heritage were to be incorporated in courses at all levels; the teaching style

was to accommodate Mäori preference for learning styles; and tikanga Mäori was to

be supported. The scheme at the girls'school, Te Kura Hine, although designed for a

dominantly Päkehä body of students and art department staff, demonstrated a partic-

ular concern to honour treaty obligations and illustrated the overall ethos of the

school. By contrast, in Te Kura Tama's scheme neither Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty of

Waitangi nor the word 'Mäori' were mentioned except in excerpts from national cur-

riculum documents. There was no use of te reo, even in a year 11 Mäori art unit.

Thus, it was clear that the ways in which Ministry and school documents were

interpreted and acted upon by principals and art department staff varied substantially

and revealed much about school policy making. The findings from the analysis of

government and schools' documents were used to inform the subsequent interviews

and observations.

NGA WHAKAUTÜTU – WHAT I HEARD

AT THE INTERVIEWS

'Enquiring' involved interviews with principals, art teachers, and students at years

10, 11, and 13 (mostly 14, 15 and 17 year olds). Interviews and their documentation

JILL SMITH

and analysis represented a major dimension of the research. The following com-

ments from principals and heads of art departments (HODs) at nga kura tuarua

illustrate their attitudes towards Te Tiriti Waitangi-Treaty of Waitangi and bicultural

education:

Principal, T e K ura T ama: I actually don't give a toss about the

partnership

(ibid, p. 108)

HOD art, T e Kur a T ama: A lot of boys from this school come from back-

grounds where that prejudice is part of their culture at home … it's a

very hard thing to fight against. I've had a letter from a parent saying I

do not want my son to be taught Mäori art and I want him to be taken out

of the class when anything to do with that happens

(ibid, p. 93)

Principal, T e Kur a Hine-T ama: The school schemes would say the right

things but what I am interested in is not what they're saying but what they are

doing … putting subjects into a meaningful context. If you talk to Mäori

teachers they feel like they're carrying this huge burden …

(ibid, p. 82)

HOD art, T e Kur a Hine-T ama: I feel confident with the Mäori stu-

dents … but I would feel very inadequate if asked to present my findings

on teaching Mäori art to Mäori educators … Mäori are hard on

Mäori … they would eat me alive

(ibid, p. 93)

Principal, T e Kur a Hine: … what actually has to happen is a

change … that is both intellectual and emotional … so first you have to

know your history and … the sociology of indigenous peoples … and

about the impact on a culture of a dominant culture

(ibid, p. 84)

HOD art, T e Kur a Hine: I would like to think we are very explicit about

the significance of Mäori art. It's not just about looking and drawing but

the idea of knowing and understanding … we have made great effort to

ensure that it isn't tokenism

(ibid, p. 88)

Overall, there was a strong correlation between the views of principals and their staff.

As example, the HOD at Te Kura Hine maintained that the positive attitude of the

principal permeated the school and, consequently, the art department. Conversely, the

negative response of the principal at Te Kura Tam a towards bicultural inclusion

appeared to filter down to staff and students.

487

A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

488

An aim of the interviews with the nine Mäori and nine Päkehä students was to

discover their knowledge of Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty of Waitangi and awareness of

biculturalism in their art programmes. With the exception of one year 10 Mäori boy

(who had been brought up in a traditional way, spoke te reo Mäori, and had studied

the treaty since he was a small child) and one year 11 Päkehä girl (who had gained a

comprehensive knowledge of the treaty in social studies) the majority showed little

understanding. The comments of two students illustrate the superficial understanding

held by the majority:

Yeah, we studied the treaty but I can't remember. I remember a beach

somewhere. The Mäori don't know how to sign so they did little signs or

something

(ibid, p. 102)

We learnt about the flag. Hone Heke took it down

(ibid, p. 105)

In contrast, all students were aware of Mäori art. Their comments about the kind of

study they made of Mäori art appeared, however, to reflect the nature and policies of

their schools and the attitudes towards it:

Y ear 10 Päkehä girl, T e Kur a Hine-T ama: We look at the work at the

marae. Our teacher takes us there, we look at the panels and she tells us

some things about the meaning … .We do a lot of cultures. We're doing

African …

(ibid, p. 101)

Y ear 10 Mäori boy, T e Kura Hine-T ama: We're lucky, people get to study

whatever kind of art they like, their kind of art … I just love to take up

more Mäori than anything else

(ibid, p. 101)

Y ear 10 Päkehä boy, T e Kur a T ama: Our course doesn't really include

Mäori art. For the last exam we had to sketch a (Pacific Island) tapa

cloth

(ibid, p. 102)

Y ear 13 Mäori boy, T e Kur a T ama: I don't know anything about my Mäori

background … I'm happy using European models

(ibid, p. 107)

Y ear 11 Päkehä girl, T e Kur a Hine: In the work we've just done we had

to incorporate both Mäori things and European aspects … incorporated

JILL SMITH

together, an equal amount of Mäori things. Our course is bicultural,

incorporating half European and half Mäori – bicultural as in two

cultures. I feel as if the Treaty of Waitangi sort of comes across in my

work

(ibid, pp. 104–105)

Analysis of the student interviews suggested that the school's circumstances affected

the confidence and responsiveness of students. Where the art programme was

focused within a bicultural context, this was transmitted to students whatever their

ethnic identity. Where tikanga Mäori and Mäori art had an insignificant place in a

school's programme, in school policy, and in the school community, this was similarly

reflected in students' responses.

NGA KITENGA I NGA KURA – WHAT I SAW

IN THE SCHOOLS

'Experiencing' was achieved through school and art room observations. There was

evidence from the art classes observed (which included the majority of the 18 students

interviewed) of a strong correlation between the data collected through analysis of

school charters and art department schemes, through interviews, and from observations.

This correlation helped support the validity of the triangulation of data collecting

techniques used in the research.

My observations did reveal, however, information not apparent in the document

analysis and the interviews. I concluded, for example, that the quality of students' art

performance in biculturally-oriented programmes depended as much upon economic

circumstance, teacher knowledge and understanding of Mäori art, the degree of

teacher direction, and the resources available to students, as it did upon school policy.

Student ethnicity was not a major factor affecting attitude or performance. Some

Mäori students appeared disaffected in respect of Mäori art. Others saw their art

programme as an opportunity to find and reclaim their cultural heritage. Some

Päkehä students showed considerable empathy with and knowledge of Mäori art and

its significance. Others were singularly lacking in knowledge or interest in any

aspect. I detected too that the artistic merit of students' work did not necessarily cor-

relate with cultural understanding. So-called 'good' art work influenced by Mäori art

could be executed in ignorance of its cultural relevance. Correlation or connection,

when it existed, arose from teaching approaches which incorporated knowledge of

the cultural base.

My observations revealed that the mandatory inclusion by the Ministry of

Education of a bicultural dimension in the art curriculum in no way guarantees that

all students gain some understanding of "the unique position of Mäori in New

Zealand society" or are brought to "acknowledge the importance to all New

Zealanders of both Mäori and Päkehä traditions, histories, and values" (Ministry of

Education, 1993, p. 7).

489

A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

490

NGA KITENGA A TE RANGAHAU – WHAT I

CONCLUDED FROM THE RESEARCH

The search for answers to my questions, What is the political and social agenda

which lies behind Aotearoa-New Zealand's bicultural education policy and what are

the perceptions, behaviours and performances of the participants in relation to the

bicultural curriculum imperative?, confirmed that my task was complicated by many

factors – historical, sociological, anthropological, economic, racial, political and

educational. I arrived at several conclusions:

●Te Tiriti o Waitangi-Treaty of Waitangi, though not itself binding in law, has influ-

enced the shape of Aotearoa-New Zealand society and its policies for education.

Subsequent legislation has not protected Mäori from policies of colonial imperi-

alism and assimilation that contradict the intent of the treaty. Their low status in

economic, social and cultural terms denotes cultural inequality with Päkehä;

●Liberal humanist doctrines of the 1970s have led to government policies which

endorse a species of biculturalism rather than multiculturalism. It is policy deriving

from a specific political and ideological stance not shared by all New Zealanders;

●Mäori belief that their 'arts' are the central vehicle of their culture makes visual

arts education a significant dimension of curriculum if true bicultural policy is to

be sustained. What might constitute appropriate practice in terms of bicultural art

education is not well-defined and results in variable practice from tokenism to

informed comprehension about Mäoritanga (traditions, practices, beliefs) and

tikanga Mäori (respect for Mäori cultural values);

●The imposition of current bicultural requirements may place unrealistic burdens

upon teachers. The mandatory inclusion of a bicultural dimension in the visual

arts curriculum does not ensure that all students gain some understanding of "the

unique position of Mäori in New Zealand society" or are brought to "acknowledge

the importance to all New Zealanders of both Mäori and Päkehä traditions, histories,

and values" (Ministry of Education, 1993, p. 7).

As a consequence of this research I am left with the sobering knowledge that what to

begin with I thought of as an enlightened government policy in a liberal climate

towards the indigenous people of Aotearoa-New Zealand may not be more than yet

another piece of paternalism. Such paternalism within a government's education

system is intolerable in terms of Giroux's (1992, p. 15) claim that "educators have a

public responsibility that by its very nature involves them in the struggle for democracy.

This makes the teaching profession a unique and powerful public resource". Giroux

typifies teaching as a profession, which in the best interpretation means that teachers

are not merely the providers of instruction, but accept a responsibility to examine the

circumstances or conditions with which they are faced, explore the best possible solu-

tions based upon sound and evaluated information and research, implement with skill

the programmes they devise, and accept responsibility to face and deal with outcomes,

positive or negative. It is a role which requires teachers to evaluate the philosophies,

objectives and directives of the state and its education system, a large demand perhaps

but one essential if professionalism is to prevail over instructional obedience.

JILL SMITH

In Aotearoa-New Zealand, historically, teachers colleges or colleges of education

have been stand-alone institutions under the direct control of the Ministry of

Education in terms of establishment, resourcing and curriculum. In this circumstance

it would appear difficult, if not subversive, for colleges of education to offer pre-entry

training which was not obedient to Ministry guidelines. What became evident from

my research, however, is the need for teacher educators (and their students) to be able

and willing to question the Ministry's position on such issues as national curriculum.

Subsequent to my research there has been much critical debate about The New

Zealand Curriculum Framework (Ministry of Education, 1993). As example, Clark

(2004, p. 35) regards the curriculum framework as "philosophically problematic and

politically conservative". O'Neill et al . (2004, p. 43), similarly, see the document as

one which "does not embrace an educational or pedagogically informed approach to

teaching and learning". One of the centrally mandated requirements for teacher

registration and employment is, however, that pre-service teachers are familiar with

and competent to offer programmes consistent with the curriculum framework. Clark

(2004, p. 35) claims that "this means little more than simply getting students to

accept as a given the Ministry approved position". Such criticisms must be taken

seriously by visual arts teacher educators, a position I have advocated in arguing for

the displacement of a monocultural view of curriculum in favour of cultural equity

(Smith, 2004). Passive acceptance of the Ministry's acknowledgement of the value of

Te Tiriti o Waitangi-The Treaty of Waitangi and of New Zealand's bicultural identity

is not enough in itself.

I have come to the conclusion as a result of my research that the ideological bases

of our bicultural policy require scrutiny, not least by those involved in teacher educa-

tion and school reform. It may be that existing bicultural policy rests on a faulty

premise regarding ethnicity and culture. It is imperative in my view that the teaching

profession itself takes the lead in examining and researching the validity of existing

bicultural policy, but it is less likely to do so when teacher education is required to be

obedient to state dictates. What is required is that teacher education takes upon itself

the responsibility to act as the conscience of society and have the courage and deter-

mination to withstand the shifting ideological and politically motivated impositions

of government.

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Bishop, R. and Glynn, T. (1999) Culture Counts: Changing Power Relations in Education. Palmerston

North: Dunmore Press.

Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. (1992) Qualitative Research for Education (2nd edition). Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.

Brownlie, I. (1992). Treaties and Indigenous Peoples. In Brookfield, F. M. (ed), The Robb Lectures, 1991 .

Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Chalmers, F. G. (1999) Cultural Colonialism and Art Education: Eurocentric and Racist Roots of Art

Education, in Boughton, D. and Mason, R. (eds), Beyond Multicultural Art Education:

International Perspectives New York: Waxmann, pp.173–183.

Clark, J. (2002) Cultural Sensitivity and Educational Research. New Zealand Journal of Educational

Studies, vol. 37, 1, pp. 93–100.

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A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

492

Clark, J. (2004) Its About Time that Teacher Education Began to Critically Examine the School

Curriculum: Against Philosophical Naivete and Political Conservatism. ACCESS Critical

Perspectives on Communication, Cultural & Policy Studies, vol. 23, 1, pp. 35–42.

Christie, W. (1999) New Zealand Education and Treatyism. Auckland: Wyvern Press.

Davis, F. (1976) Mäori Art and Artists. Wellington: School Publications.

Department of Education. (1943) The Post Primary School Curriculum: Report of the Committee

Appointed by the Ministry of Education in November, 1942. Wellington: Department of

Education.

Department of Education. (1975) School Certificate Art Prescription. Wellington: Department of

Education.

Department of Education. (1976) Towards Partnership: The Report of the Committee on Secondary

Education. Wellington: Department of Education.

Eisner, E. (1991) The Enlightened Eye: Qualitative Enquiry and the Enhancement of Educational

Practice. New York: Macmillan.

Erickson, F. (1986) Qualitative Methods : Research in Teaching and Learning. New York: Macmillan.

Giroux, H. A. (1992) Border Crossings: Cultural Workers and the Politics of Education. New York:

Routledge, Chapman & Hall.

Hakiwai, A. T. (1996) Mäori society today: Welcome to Our World, in Starzecka, D. C. (ed), Mäori Art and

Culture. Auckland: David Bateman, pp. 50–68.

Hall, A. and Bishop, R. (2001) Teacher Ethics, Professionalism and Cultural Diversity. New Zealand

Journal of Educational Studies, vol. 36, 2, pp. 187–202.

Jahnke, R. (1995) Dialogue: Talking Past Each Other, in Holmes, J. (ed.), Bi-culturalism, Multi-

Culturalism and the Visual Arts: Papers presented at the Auckland Conference of University Art

and Design Schools. Hobart: University of Tasmania, pp. 5–17.

Jones, A., McCulloch, G., Marshall, J., Smith, G., and Smith, L. (1990) Myths and Realities: Schooling in

New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.

Kawharu, H. (ed) (1989) Waitangi: Mäori and Päkehä perspectives of the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland:

Oxford University Press.

Mead, S.M. (ed) (1984) Te Mäori: Mäori Art from New Zealand collections. Auckland: Heinemann.

Ministry of Education. (1993) The New Zealand Curriculum Framework: Te Anga Marautanga o

Aotearoa. Wellington: Learning Media.

Ministry of Education. (1997) Social Studies in the New Zealand Curriculum . Wellington: Learning

Media.

Ministry of Education. (2000) The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media.

Ministry of Education. (2004) He Wakahuia toi Mäori: Mäori Visual Culture in Visual Arts Education

Years 7–10. Wellington: Learning Media.

New Zealand Qualifications Authority. (2000) Visual Arts Achievement Standards (Level 1).Wellington:

New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Retrieved on October 25, 2002. http://www.nzqa.org.nz/

ncea/ach/Visual%20Arts/index.html.

O'Neill, A.-M., Clark, J. and Openshaw, R. (2004) Reshaping Culture, Knowledge and Learning: Policy

and Content in The New Zealand Curriculum Framework. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press.

Openshaw, R. and McKenzie, D. (eds) (1997) Reinterpreting the Educational Past. Wellington: New

Zealand Council for Educational Research.

Orange, C. (1987) The Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Allen and Unwin & Port Nicholson Press.

Panaho, R. (1988) Paratene Matchitt: The Principle of Change in Mäori art. Art New Zealand , vol. 45,

pp. 63–67.

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Sage.

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Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, pp.194–214.

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North: Manawatu Art Gallery.

JILL SMITH

Rata, E. (2000) A Political Economy of Neotribal Capitalism . Maryland: Lexington Books.

Rata, E. (2003) Rethinking Biculturalism, in Grierson, E. and Smith, J. (eds), Nga waka, Aotearoa New

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Journey in Art Teaching and Teacher Education, 1969–1996. Paper presented at Aotearoa New

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A CASE STUDY: DILEMMAS OF BICULTURALISM

TEACHERS' REFLECTIVE THINKING AND PRACTICE

AND ITS IMPACT ON THEIR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The ability to reflect is widely known as a factor affecting the effectiveness of teacher

development. Terminology such as reflection, reflective thinking, reflective practice,

reflective judgment and reflective learning appears a lot in journals and literature about

education, training and professional development. Research literature consistently

stresses the importance of reflection in the training of teachers and professionals (Kolb,

1984; Kirby, 1988; Morine-Dershimer, 1989; Mezirow, 1991; Colton and Sparks-Langer,

1993; Copeland et al ., 1993). In order to facilitate effective teaching, teachers need to be

aware of their own practice and their practice environment, which includes their pupils

and other people in their own work situation. They must have insights or initiatives to plan

and act for their duties and to react to their own practice environment. During their own

perception and (re)action processes, teachers can learn from their own experience

through reflection. Their reflection of experience is linked to the formulation and the

development of their pedagogy, which has an impact on the teachers'daily practice.

From a methodological point of view, there is a need to provide empirical justification

for the measures of "reflective thinking". On the basis of this rationale, this chapter will

report some statistical work on clarifying the factor structure of Reflective Thinking and

Practice (RTP), an instrument that is used to measure teachers' reflective thinking and

practice on the basis of Mezirow's transformative learning theory, as well as its potential

links with some measures in Kolb's LSI-1985. The LSI-1985 is a well-established and

tested instrument measuring learning styles, and one of the dimensions of the measures

in the instrument is an assessment of the use of the "reflective observation" learning ori-

entation. The outcomes of analysis (e.g. confirmatory factor analysis) provide a sound

empirical basis on the feasibility to assess reflection from the perspective of transforma-

tive learning theory. To move forward, educators and researchers would like to ask "Is

there a link between teachers'reflective thinking and practice based on Kolb's experien-

tial learning theory and on Mezirow's transformative learning theory?"

Theoretically speaking, the investigation will indicate the feasibility of unifying

the two theories and it would further increase educational researchers' and theorists'

understanding of the relationships between reflection and teacher professional

development. Such an understanding would help policy makers to plan and to make

decisions about teacher education. It would in turn benefit the practitioners in edu-

cation (e.g., teachers) in promoting their learning and self-development as well as

495

HARRISON TSE

34. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH

TRANSFORMATION: LINKING TWO ASSESSMENT

MODELS OF TEACHERS' REFLECTIVE THINKING

AND PRACTICE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 495–506.

496

refining their teaching strategies from time to time based on the concept of

reflection.

REFLECTIVE THINKING AND PRACTICE IN KOLB'S

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory is one of the prominent models about learning

by experience based on research in psychology, philosophy and physiology. It has

adopted Piaget's ideas (see Figure 34.1) about learning and development from the

perspective of human inquiry. Although Kolb has used a different set of terminology

in his theory, the four learning orientations that he suggested originate from the four

learning orientations suggested by Piaget.

According to Kolb, there are two structural dimensions underlying the process of

experiential learning, the "prehension" dimension and the "transformation" dimension.

The former is represented by the vertical axis on Figure 34.1 and the latter is repre-

sented by the horizontal axis. As a major process of adaptation to the environment,

Kolb believes that knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience

and transforming it. To grasp the reality, there are two dialectically opposed forms of

"prehension", namely, direct apprehension and comprehension. The knowledge

HARRISON TSE

(CONCRETE EXPERIENCE)

Ikonic

learning

Inductive

learning

(ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION)

(ASSIMILATOR)

(DIVERGER)(ACCOMODATOR) Enactive

learning

(ACTIVE

EXPERI-

MENTATION)

(CONVERGER)

1. Sensory-motor

stage

2. Representational

stage

4. Formal

operational

stage

3. Concrete

operational

stage

Hypothetico-

deductive

learning

Concrete

phenomenalism

Abstract

constructionism

Internalized

reflection

Active

egocentricism

(REFLECTIVE

OBSER-

VATION)

Figure 34.1. Piaget's model of learning and development with Kolb's learning orientations

and learning styles (Adapted from: Kolb, 1984, p. 25 and p. 42)

Note: Kolb's learning orientations and learning styles are highlighted in upper case. Other descriptors are about Piaget's

work.

through the former process is represented in the form of concrete experience, while

the knowledge obtained through the latter process is represented in the form of

abstract concepts. These two dialectically opposed orientations of adaptation in the

prehension dimension are called "concrete experience" orientation and "abstract

conceptualization" orientation. Concrete experience emphasizes personal involve-

ment with people in everyday situations. People with this learning orientation would

tend to rely on their own feelings. They prefer to be involved in real situations than to

adapt to the theoretical or scientific approach to problems and situations. Instead of

relying on their feelings, they tend to understand problems and situations through

thinking and to learn by using logics and analyzing ideas.

In order to make knowledge meaningful to an individual, the figurative representation

of knowledge needs to be transformed into experience. There are two dialectically

opposed ways of "transformation", namely, intention (that is internal reflection) and

extension (that is active external manipulation of the world). The two dialectically

opposed orientations of transformation dimension are called "reflective observation"

and "active experimentation". In reflective observation, people understand ideas and

situations from different points of views. They rely on patience, objectivity and careful

consideration before forming opinions or making judgments. Active experimentation

means learning by doing. People with this learning orientation have a practical

approach to problems, value getting things done and seeing the results of their influence

and ingenuity.

Kolb's theory regards reflection as one of the two contrasting orientations of learning

along the transformative dimension of adaptation. He believes that reflection

involves the analysis of data collected from observations to serve as a form of feedback

to the pre-set goal and for the development of future action goals. Kolb also considers

reflection as the basis for knowledge internalisation mechanism during which

accommodation and assimilation processes operate. Reflection is an important

process for the construction and reconstruction of cognitive structure within an indi-

vidual. This orientation of learning is the determinant of the integration of conceptions

about the world, while the active experimentation orientation of learning is the major

determinant of the differentiation of conceptions about the world.

Based on the four learning orientations described above, people may discover that

no single orientation is able to describe one's learning style entirely. This is because

each person's learning style is a combination of these four basic learning modes. For

this reason, Kolb has tried to classify learners who consistently employ different

orientations into four learning styles. They are converger, diverger, assimilator and

accommodator.

"Converger" describes a learner who highly depends on the "abstract conceptuali-

sation" and "active experimentation" learning orientations. They are best at applying

ideas to solve technical problems and to make decisions through hypothetical-deductive

reasoning. "Diverger" describes a learner who highly depends on the "concrete expe-

rience" and "reflective observation" learning orientations. People with this orientation

have strong imaginative ability. They are best at viewing concrete situations from

different points of view and identifying meanings and values. They often perform well

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION

498

in situations that require alternative ideas, such as activities that require "brainstorming"

ideas. The label "assimilator" is used to describe a learner who highly depends on the

"abstract conceptualisation" and "reflective observation" learning orientations.

People with this orientation are best at understanding a wide range of information

and putting it into concise and logical form. They have the ability to integrate

disparate information to form as a coherent system or a theoretical model of their

own. "Accommodator" describes a learner who highly depends on the "concrete

experience" and "active experimentation" learning orientations. They have the ability

to learn primarily from "hands-on" experience. They enjoy involving oneself in new

and challenging experiences and learning in an intuitive trial-and-error approach,

given that they don't mind changing or giving up their plans, system or theory when

appropriate.

REFLECTIVE THINKING AND PRACTICE IN MEZIROW'S

TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING THEORY

Mezirow is a prominent figure working on the transformative dimension of learning.

He has proposed that learning "may be understood as the process of using a prior inter-

pretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one's experience

in order to guide future action" (Mezirow, 1998). The thinking process is actually a

learning process in which one's experience is gained, extended or/and transformed

through deliberate effort. The thinking processes can take place during or after the

action taken by the practitioner. In Schon's terms (Schon, 1983 and 1987), if the think-

ing process takes place simultaneously when a practitioner performs the action, it is

called "reflection-in-action". If the thinking process takes place some time after the

action, it is called "reflection-on-action". Mezirow's theory makes practical contribu-

tions to the education and training of professionals by explaining the roles of critical

thinking, learning and development, reflection, problem-posing and problem-solving.

In the book his wrote in 1991, Mezirow has tried to distinguish "non-reflective"

actions from "reflective" actions. Habitual actions are classified as non-reflective

because reflective thinking is not necessary when the action is performed. For example,

riding a bicycle is often a habitual and spontaneous action during which the rider does

not have to make a deliberate effort about the operational procedure of controlling the

bicycle. The bicycle rider can focus attention on other things or events while the vehicle

is still under good control. This is quite different from an engineer who met a difficult

technical problem and he eventually managed to get it solved after making a deliberate

effort to think about the knowledge he learnt from the training institutes and some

experience that he gained from his previous workplaces. Thinking and practice in the

second example can be classified as reflective because the action is performed in a

thoughtful mode. Introspection was not included because it was regarded as an activity

within the affective domain (see Kember et al ., 1999 and Mezirow, 1991).

In his later work in 1998, Mezirow has another attempt to distinguish thinking and

practice without critical reflection from those with critical reflection. The former

include habitual action, introspection and thoughtful action. The latter include

HARRISON TSE

content reflection, process reflection, content and process reflection, and premise

reflection.

Mezirow (1991, 1998) thinks that critical reflection can be sub-divided into

"content reflection", "process reflection" and "premise reflection". The first one is

reflection on what is perceived, thought, felt or acted upon (Mezirow, 1991, p. 107)

and the second one involves the examination of how one performs the functions of

perceiving, thinking, feeling, or acting and an assessment of efficacy in performing

them. The objects of various sub-types of critical reflection are different, too. The

former focuses on the content of the problem and the latter focuses on the process of

problem solving. Items in this level refer to these two sub-types of critical reflection,

and the mixture of both, which can be called "content and process reflection".

The major criterion to differentiate thinking and practice "without critical reflec-

tion" and those "with critical reflection" is whether the process of appraisal or review

of the content, process, or premise(s) of the effort paid to interpret and give meaning

to an experience. Only actions that have gone through the meta-cognitive evaluation

process can be classified as critical reflection. For example, if the teacher's problem

is to find out whether the boy in her class is telling the truth about his age, the focus

of her content reflection may be on his physical outlook, such as the color of his hair,

the facial appearance, or the year he has entered the school. To address the problem,

the teacher pays deliberate attention to identify relevant information that helps her to

make a judgment.

Process reflection may take place with or without content reflection. After making

judgments about the problem, for example, the teacher may reflect on process, such

as evaluating how her judgment is made and how to address similar problems in the

future. She may review the adequacy and appropriateness of the clues that she had

and the way made use of the clues to make judgments. The teacher's premise reflection

might be illustrated by a question that she asks herself, "Why do, or should, I care

how old the student is?" It often involves evaluation of the value or the validity of

knowledge and experience.

The transformative learning theory has the special feature of defining reflection

from a critical perspective. For premise reflection, the reflective practitioner may

need a "time out" process during which the practitioner removes himself or herself

from the action for a critique of a premise or presupposition. The actual duration of

the time out process may or may not be long, and it varies between individuals. For

example, a lawyer's reflection might take less than a second without withdrawing

from the action being taken. On the contrary, a trainee teacher or an inexperienced

professional might find reflection-in-action too difficult, but keep reviewing his or

her classroom action after the teaching practice took place. Mezirow (1998) proposes

that the critique of a premise or presupposition on which the practitioner has defined

a problem is a special mode of critical reflection, through which personal meaning

perspective is transformed or the problem is re-defined. As distinct from problem

solving, the focus of attention is on problem posing. The term "premise self-reflection"

or "critical self-reflection of an assumption" is used to describe this special type of

critical reflection.

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION

500

ASSESSMENT MODEL BASED

ON KOLB'S WORK

Tse (2004) has reported an assessment of teachers' reflective thinking and practice

based on Kolb's experiential learning theory. The measures in his study were

obtained through the administration of Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI-1985).

The inventory describes the way people learn and how people deal with ideas and

day-to-day situations in their life. Four measures were derived from the inventory,

namely, concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and

active experimentation. Participants were asked to complete a set of sentences and

rank the endings for each sentence according to how well they thought each one fits

their experience of learning something. The inventory consists of 12 sentences.

Teacher participants were told to recall some recent situations where they had to

learn something new. They were asked to rank a "4" for the most suitable sentence

to describe the way they learn, down to a "1" for the least suitable sentence to

describe the way they learn. An example of the instrument can be found in

Figure 34.2.

ASSESSMENT MODEL BASED

ON MEZIROW'S WORK

Tse (2004) has also reported the assessment of teachers' reflective thinking and practice

based on Mezirow's transformative learning theory. RTP, the instrument that he used

to assess it, consists of 14 statements. Teacher respondents were asked to indicate the

extent of validity of statements about their reflective thinking in relation to their

teaching, using the scale "never true of me", "occasionally true of me", sometimes

true of me", "often true of me" or "always true of me". When not possible or unsure

about the answer, respondents were allowed to choose the option "N.A." on the scale.

In the instrument, the 14 statements are categorized into 4 latent factor groups.

They are habitual action, reflection, critical reflection, and premise reflection.

Habitual actions represent a group of actions that take place outside focal awareness.

Professionals may equip themselves with automatic responses to familiar tasks or

problems through repetitive habitual practice. The statement "I repeat some class-

room duties so many times that I tend to do them without conscious thought" is one

of the items in this category. Reflection represents the process in which professionals

HARRISON TSE

I like to learn by:

feeling

(Adapted from: Kolb, 1985)

4123

watching thinking doing

Figure 34.2. An example of items in the Kolb's Learning Style Inventory 1985

make reference to their learnt knowledge and experience without reviewing the

validity of the information. Activities in this level are conscious and intentional. The

statement "I use the educational knowledge that I have learned to interpret what is

happening in the classroom" is one of the items in this category. Critical reflection

represents a spectrum of activities, including mental exploration of experience, cre-

ation and clarification of personal meaning, internal examination of an issue of con-

cern, the change in understandings, appreciations, and even personal perspectives.

The statement "To tackle a teaching problem, I ask myself about the features that I

noticed when I recognised it as a problem" is one of the items in this category.

Premise self-reflection occurs when the object of critical reflection is an assumption

or pre-supposition on which one's own interpretation or definition of a problem is

made, and it functions as a special form of critical self-reflection that leads to a

re-interpretation or re-definition of the problem. The statement "I come up with a

solution to a teaching problem after I have found the fault(s) in my interpretation of

the problem" is one of the items in this category.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TWO

ASSESSMENT MODELS

The survey questionnaire about reflective teaching based on Mezirow's theory was

sent to 197 practising primary teachers. These are all the teachers who indicated that

they were willing to be contacted for future research in a survey carried out by a

large-scale national project 15 months prior to the administration of the survey ques-

tionnaire in this chapter. That survey was carried out in England and it was targeted

at primary school teachers that were classified as 'effective' or 'highly effective'.

With the expectation that highly effective teachers tend to be more reflective, the

sample was regarded as suitable for the investigative studies on the assessment of

reflective thinking and practice.

The return rate was 59%. A total of 117 teachers made responses to this section,

but 4 cases were dropped due to consistent omission in answering part of the ques-

tionnaire. For the formulation of structural equation models (SEM), the number of

teachers who participated in this study is relatively small. Schumacker (1996)

mentions that 100 to 150 subjects seem to be the minimum satisfactory sample size

and Hoyle (1995) suggests that 250 seem to be the minimum sample size for stable

results. The requirement of having 10 to 20 subjects per variable seems to be the rule

of thumb in many statistical analyses (Schumacker, 1996, p. 20). As the sample size

is small, special attention has been paid to the estimation of missing data so as to

make the best of the available sample. For this reason the AMOS statistical package

was used. The collected data was coded according to the numerical scale from 0 to 4.

And responses for not possible or unsure about the answer were dropped from the

analysis. Of these 117 respondents, 74 of them have also filled in the Learning Style

Inventory (LSI-1985) in order to assess their learning styles and reflective teaching

based on Kolb's theory.

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION

502

Findings about the feasibility to assess teachers'

reflective thinking and practice

The data collected from 117 teachers was first analysed by the EQS statistical computer

software (Byrne, 1994) and finally by the AMOS software (Arbuckle, 1996b).

The main reason for using EQS is that this application is particularly good at the

estimation of parameter changes during the model re-specification stage as well as

providing descriptive information about the model. And AMOS can make a unique

contribution to the study by its feature of "full information estimation" of missing

data. Arbuckle (1996a) demonstrated that the maximum likelihood estimation

methods, as used in AMOS, could produce more accurate estimations than some

other traditional missing data estimation methods, such as "listwise", "pairwise" and

"imputation". This estimation method is also recommended by Schumacker (1996).

On average, the percentage of missing data was around 3%, with a variance between

1.8% to 5.3%. Although the percentage of missing data seems to be acceptably

low, the relatively small sample size in this study requires a maximum use of the

information from the collected data through careful estimation of missing values.

The results of the confirmatory factor analysis show that it is appropriate to group

the items into four levels, namely: habitual action, knowledge application, critical

reflection and premise reflection. Each factor is composed of three to four items, as

literature suggests that at least three observed variables are needed for each latent

variable (e.g. Schumacker, 1996). As there were missing data, the overall fit of the

model was assessed by the difference between the function of log likelihood of the

proposed model and that of the saturated model, as suggested by Arbuckle (1996b).

The difference between the two represents a chi-equivalent index, which represents

the statistical significace of the model. In this model, the chi-square statistic was

found to be 73.78 with 67 degree of freedom. It means there is no indication that the

model is inaccurate and the model should be confidently accepted at the 5% level of

statistical significance. And the four-factor structure model seems to be statistically

accurate. In addition to this, the four-factor structure has been checked against the

results of a scree plot, which suggests that it would not be appropriate to describe the

model with less than four factors. The results give support to the proposed four-factor

structure. When working together, the four factors can explain 61% of the total item

variance. The alpha statistic of the habitual action measure is 0.6 and those of the

other three measures are roughly equal to 0.7, respectively. The results indicate that

the 3 reflection assessment measures based on Mezirow's theory are reasonably reli-

able in terms of their internal consistency between items in each of the measures,

while the habitual action measure is fairly reliable.

The data collected from 74 teachers were analysed with the Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS) software application (Norusis, 2000). On average, the alpha

statistics of the 4 learning orientations in LSI-1985 is 0.85, with a variance between

0.78 and 0.89. The results show that the instrument has four learning orientation

measures with good internal consistency, namely: concrete experience, reflective

observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. The results mean

HARRISON TSE

that the learning orientation measures based on Kolb's theory are very reliable. They

also provide a sound empirical background for us to move forward to the investiga-

tion into the possible links between the two theories.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LINKS BETWEEN THE

TWO ASSESSMENT MODELS

Kolb and Mezirow are similar in some ways because both of them emphasize the

importance of "transformation" in learning. On the other hand, their conceptions of

reflection are reasonably different from each other. Therefore, Tse (2004) has carried

out a quantitative investigation into the relationships between the two major strands

of reflection with data obtained from the administration of the two measuring instru-

ments. A series of correlation tests was carried out between each of the measures of

LSI-1985 and each of the four measures in the CFA. The results are obtained from 74

teachers and they are reported in Table 34.1 below. None of the correlation statistics

were found to be statistically significant.

Conceptions of reflection and transformation

It is obvious that both experiential learning theory and transformative learning theory

are concerned with knowledge transformation. This is the common theoretical

ground for bridging the two theories. However, the results of correlation tests

reported that none of the expected patterns of relationships was found to be statistically

significant. So the attempt to link the two theories together based on their theoretical

background does not seem to be successful.

If the failure is not due to measurement error, the results indicate that the scope

and definitions of reflection and transformation were interpreted differently. In the

experiential learning theory, reflective observation is a form of learning orientation.

Being dialectically opposed to the active experimentation, it is another approach that

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION

TABLE 34.1 The results of correlation statistics (two-tailed) concerning measures of

learning style and measures of reflective thinking and practice

Habitual action Thoughtful Critical Premise self-

application reflection reflection

Concrete 0.22 0.07 0.03 0.02

Experience (CE) 0.06 0.54 0.77 0.86

Reflective 0.05 0.01 0.11 0.16

Observation (RO) 0.70 0.94 0.36 0.18

Abstract 0.19 0.11 0.15 0.10

Conceptualization (AC) 0.10 0.36 0.21 0.40

Active 0.05 0.06 0.01 0.06

Experimentation (AE) 0.68 0.62 0.91 0.59

Note: In each cell, the first statistic refers to correlation and the second one refers to statistical significance.

504

a person consistently employs to process the information that he or she has perceived.

The outcome of transforming perceived information is the acquisition of experience

and it helps the learner to adapt to the environment. In transformative learning

theory, reflection is a revisit of experience and critical reflection is an internal exam-

ination of the content of the problem, the process of problem solving or the premise

of the problem. Transformation in perspective only happens when faults, invalidity or

misinterpretation of assumption(s) are found (Mezirow, 1991). So, the two theories

have different interpretations of the two concepts; although both of them think that

internal reflective mental processing make contributions to the transformative

dimension of learning.

SUMMING UP

This chapter reviews the conception of reflection in relation to two learning theories,

Kolb's experiential learning theory and Mezirow's transformative learning theory.

The former regards reflection as a part of the experiential learning cycle while the

later suggests it to be an essential process leading to transformative learning. Despite

the apparent difference in the role of reflection, the author attempts to investigate the

appropriateness to link the two theories together.

A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on an instrument in assess-

ing reflective practice on the basis of transformative learning theory. The statistical

results suggest that the four-factor structure model is confirmed and the four factors

(i.e. habitual action, reflection, critical reflection and premise reflection) are able to

explain 60% of the total item variance. This was followed by investigating the internal

consistency of each of the measures in the two instruments constructed on the basis

of the two learning theories. The results suggest that the measures are generally reliable.

A correlational analysis was carried out to investigate the potential link between

the four factors mentioned above and the four measures within the learning style

inventory. However, results suggest that none of the expected patterns of relation-

ships is found to be statistically significant. The attempt to link the two theories

together may not be appropriate at this time. As the investigation seems to be the first

empirical study focusing on the links between the two theories, the author thinks that

further investigations are necessary for researchers and theorists to clarify whether

there is a link between the two theories. In relation to the two theories, the results also

imply that practitioners in teacher education (e.g. curriculum planner, policy maker)

need to consider the value of reflective teaching in two alternative ways, namely,

reflection for the acquisition of experience and reflection for innovations.

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G. A. and Schumacker, R. E. (eds). Advanced Structural Equation Modeling: Issues and

Techniques. New Jessey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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HARRISON TSE

Byrne, B. M. (1994) Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic Concepts,

Applications and Programming. London: SAGE Publications.

Colton, A. B. and Sparks-Langer, G. M. (1993) A Conceptual Framework to Guide the Development of

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Copeland, W. D., Birmingham, C. M., De La Cruz, E. and Lewin, B. (1993) The Reflective Practitioner in

Teaching: Toward a Research Agenda. Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. 9, 4, pp. 347–359.

Hoyle, R. H. (1995) Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications. London: Sage

Publications.

Kember, D., Jones, A., Loke, A., McKay, J., Sinclair, K., Tse, H., Webb, C., Wong, F., Wong, M. and Yeung,

E. (1999) Determining the Level of Reflective Thinking from Student Written Journals Using a

Coding Scheme Based on the Work of Mezirow. International Journal of Lifelong Education, vol.

18, 1, pp. 18–30.

Kirby, P. C. (1988) Reflective Teaching and Teacher Effectiveness: Measurement Considerations.

Department of Educational Leadership and Foundations, University of New Orleans, New

Orleans, LA, 70148.

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Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Kolb, D.A. (1985) The Learning Style Inventory (LSI-1985): Technical manual. Boston: McBer and

Company.

Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J. (1998) On Critical Reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, vol. 48, 3, pp. 185–198.

Morine-Dershimer, G. (1989) Preservice Teacher's Conceptions of Content and Pedagogy: Measuring

Growth in Reflective, Pedagogical Decision-making. Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 40, 5,

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TRANSFORMATION

INTRODUCTION

Since 1999 Hong Kong has been experiencing education reform. The Education

Commission (EC) and the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) of the Hong

Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) have published a series of reform

documents, which set the education blueprint for the 21st century (EC, 1999, 2000;

CDC, 2000). The key to the current reform is to build an education system conducive

to lifelong and life-wide learning as well as all-round development (EC, 2000, p. 3).

This advocacy rests in the belief that the world is ever changing and Hong Kong is fac-

ing tremendous challenges. In order to meet these challenges, CDC proposed a cur-

riculum reform in a document entitled Learning to Learn. It reveals the determination

to develop students' ethics, intellect, physique, social skills and aesthetics and empha-

sizes students' learning experiences (ibid., p. 4). A framework made up of three com-

ponents: Key Learning Areas (KLA), Generic Skills (GS) and Values and Attitudes

(V&A), is developed to provide the learning experiences. The GSs are essential in

learning to learn which cut across all subjects within the eight KLAs. Values and atti-

tudes are expected to permeate the curricula and help formulate principles for conduct

and decision. Table 35.1 shows this framework (CDC, 2000, pp. 34–37, 113).

In an attempt to advocate school-based curriculum in the long-run, CDC encour-

ages schools to build on their existing strengths to adapt the present curriculum. It

recommended four key tasks to promote learning in the short-term (2000–05). They

are (i) project learning, (ii) moral and civic education, (iii) use of information

technology and (iv) development of a culture of reading (CDC, 2000, p. 26).

This chapter discusses how a school responds to the call for reform and adopts the

project learning approach to develop new facets of the teaching and learning culture.

The mode adopted is thematic and multidisciplinary. It requires teacher collaboration

and use of information technology. There are elements of civic education and life-

wide education. This study enables me to appreciate the impact of teacher action

processes on student learning and professional development.

STRENGTHS, LIMITATIONS AND TENSIONS OF ADOPTING

THE PROJECT APPROACH IN HONG KONG SCHOOLS

The Project Approach is recognized as an existing strength of Hong Kong schools to

facilitate life-long learning and to infuse generic skills into the teaching and learning

processes (ibid.). It is promoted as a useful method to allow students to construct

507

AMY A.M. YIP

35. ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE:

A CASE OF THE PROJECT APPROACH

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 507–522.

508

meaning of what they have been learning instead of being passive receivers of the

knowledge transmitted. Hong Kong has adopted Project Learning for decades. Since

the introduction of the Activity Approach in primary schools in 1972, projects have

been widely used. Project Learning has been treated as a vehicle to self-initiated

learning which involves active participation in carefully designed activities (CDC,

1993). This conception is in line with that of the early advocates of Project Learning

(Kilpatrick, 1918 and Stevenson, 1921). Furthermore, project is being promoted as a

means to introduce a wider range of learning opportunities into the classroom. An

advocate of this is Chard (1998), who quotes research and developments in education

to argue that there is a need to transform the classroom into an environment responsive

to the varying learning needs and interests of individual students. She also empha-

sizes the importance of both memorable and memorized learning and the ability to

work cooperatively on complex and open-ended tasks as well as follow instructions

in step by step learning.

Nevertheless not all student projects can yield the aforesaid benefits. Morris

(1996) observes that when schools place priorities on targets like completion of

subject syllabi and preparation for examinations, teachers are reluctant to trim down

subject content to give way for project work lest they would be blamed for examination

failure. He also argues that inadequate provision of relevant library support jeopardizes

student self-initiated learning which is a key to effective project learning (Morris,

1996, p. 113).

Unaware of the limitations mentioned above, many schools accept the project

approach uncritically and unconditionally. They show good will by exploring new learn-

ing opportunities for students and are convinced by the favourable effects of experien-

tial learning. Thus teachers are encouraged to let students do projects. They often treat

AMY A.M. YIP

TABLE 35.1 Framework of the proposed curriculum for Hong Kong schools (CDC, 2000)

8 Key learning areas 9 generic skills Values & attitudes

●Chinese language ●Collaboration skills ●Personal core values

education ● Communication skills ●e.g. sanctity of life, truth, honesty,

●English language ●Creativity dignity, creativity,

education ● Critical thinking skills ●Personal sustaining values

●Mathematics education ●Information technology ●e.g. self-esteem, self-reflection,

●Personal, social, skills self-discipline,

humanities education ●Numeracy skills ●Social core values

●Science education ●Problem solving skills ●e.g. equality, kindness,

●Technology education ●Self-management Skills benevolence, love, freedom,

●Arts education ●Study skills ●Social sustaining values

●Physical education ●e.g. plurality, democracy, equal

opportunities, sense of belonging

●Attitudes

●e.g. optimism, participatory,

critical, creative, empathetic,

caring & concern, positive

it as an additional assignment. There is very little class time on guided development of

study skills or information search skills. Students have a task without support.

Tension is frequently observed in schools in which teachers hold diverse views on the

operation and functions of the project approach. There are struggles for class time,

level of subject integration, nature of activities, mode of assessment, grouping of

students and so on. In the case of group projects, parents are often involved in the

process because students have to work collaboratively at home and share their resources.

Should a teacher have not briefed these parents well and ensured that the objectives

for self-initiated and cooperative learning are heard and understood, parents, whose

prime concern is their children's academic achievement, may find difficulty coping

with the new mode of learning and suffer from a conflict of interests between parents

and teachers. Worst of all is that a great zeal for project learning causes unreasonable

workload on students. The good intentions of project learning are destroyed by care-

less design, unclear or misunderstood project objectives, lack of resource and expert-

ise support, conflict of interest among group members and uncoordinated workloads

for students.

The following section will focus on a study of how a school moved from an undesir-

able mode to an innovative attempt. Evidence will be provided to illustrate the lessons

learned.

THE STUDY: ACTION PROCESSES OF ADOPTING

THE PROJECT APPROACH IN A HONG KONG SECONDARY SCHOOL

The context of the study

Informed by the common flaws in adopting the project approach in Hong Kong,

there is an interest in exploring how schools tackle the problems and how teachers

learn to improve practice. The context of the study is a secondary school in the

urban district of Hong Kong with a history of 40 years (called the School). A major-

ity of the students are academically challenged. Generally speaking their language

abilities are relatively low and so are their study skills. Student project work at this

School has gained the attention of educators since 2003 when it held the first exhi-

bition of project outcomes. Spectators were impressed by the unexpected desirable

performance by the students. Not only were they presentable and confident, they

also exhibited a spirit of cooperation and an air of affection for their school and

learning outcomes. The latter was atypically found among this group of students.

My interest to study this School grew in 2004 when it held another exhibition and

adopted a new mode of arrangement with all student project reports displayed and

student presentations. Instead of a few large groups of many forms, there were

almost 40 groups of 5 members each comprising only S.2 (aged 13) students.

Shortly after the exhibition, the School was invited by the Education and Manpower

Bureau (EMB) to deliver a seminar to share their experience with other teachers

and educators. This recognizes publicly the commendable efforts of the School in

promoting Project Learning.

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510

Action research

Observation reveals how the School has learned from previous experiences to

improve practice. The continuous revival of year on year operation resembles the

cyclical process of action research. The changes are noticeable. The School did go

through "a self-reflective spiral of cycles of planning, acting, observing and reflecting."

(Kemmis, 1988, p. 178). The happenings were similar to the scenario described by

Newman (1998) that there was no clear cut research question and the inquiry began

with the "muddle of daily work".

Informed by the literature on action research (Corey, 1953; Kemmis, 1988; Elliot,

1991; Calhoun, 1993; Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 1993; Kember, 2000) the study

started with an inquiry of how the School began adopting the project method, how

and why did it proposed changes, what problems were identified, what actions were

taken to intervene and what commendable practices were learned. Data was collected

through observation during the school exhibitions and student presentations as well

as from the EMB seminar; interviews with the Project Approach Core Team members,

teachers in charge of student groups and students; the project curriculum documents,

student learning logbooks, school web page information and the school project

interim evaluation survey report. The study divides the processes into three phases:

(i) before 2000, (ii) July 2001–June 2003 and (iii) July 2003–June 2004. Data are

categorized into:

●commendable new practices,

●problems that needed intervention and actions taken with respect to student learning

and teacher development, and

●administrative technical arrangements.

Attention is directed toward "(the) self-reflective spiral of cycles of planning, acting,

observing and reflecting" (Kemmis, 1988, p. 178). The study followed Kemmis'

(1988, p. 183) idea of an action research and began to trace how teachers in their

social (educational) situation try to improve the rationality and justice of:

●their own social (educational) practices,

●their understanding of these practices, and

●the context.

This is in line with Corey's (1953) emphasis on teachers'ability to make better decisions

in the classroom, Stenhouse's (1976) stress on the importance of teachers' capacities

for reflection in curriculum change, as well as Elliot and Ebutt's (1986) talk about the

improvements in teaching for understanding,

PHASE 1: BEFORE 2001

Observation, reflection and problem identification

Before the education reform, the School had already asked students to do projects which

were normally given as an assignment for a particular subject before long holidays.

Since the release of the reform documents in September 2000, the school found a chance

to bring about changes to teaching and learning. Knowing that project learning is

AMY A.M. YIP

identified as one of the four key tasks shown to be helpful to learning, leaders of the

School encouraged teachers to use it. Teachers responded immediately. Students

were required to do many subject-based projects. There were neither class time for

work nor regular teacher support. There was no central policy coordinating teacher

and student workload as well as resource allocation. As a result, students were

overloaded with project assignments of all kinds. The division of labor among group

members was uneven, making individual efforts difficult to be identified, recorded

and recognized. The following quotations from teacher interviews capture the scene:

Many students in S.4 were required to do 7 projects a year. Very often

they had to submit 2 to 3 projects after a 9-day vacation.

We did not directly supervise the students as the projects were completed

during school holidays. Due to this reason, we were unable to support

student learning and assign a fair grade to them. Therefore some projects

were marked without a score. This reduced students' motivation to sub-

mit high quality work.

PHASE 2: BEFORE JULY 2001–JUNE 2003

Observation, reflection and problems to tackle

Reviewing the practice in the year before, leaders of the School were cautious of the

heavy student workload and difficulties in assessing and awarding contribution in

projects. They considered the need for central coordination. In order to equip every

teacher with the knowledge and skills to lead project learning, a half-day Staff

Development Programme on the Project Approach was organized. The benefits and

features of project learning, the thematic approach to conduct projects, the development

of a mind map and some useful technical arrangements were introduced.

Plan for intervention and action

Following this programme, a core team of three members was formed, among them a

project coordinator. As the year 2003 marked the 40th anniversary of the School, the core

team determined to celebrate the event. The theme was then selected for convenience

and memorable purposes. Teachers were divided into groups and assigned to supervise

a particular class level. The sub-themes for individual classes were given. Teachers took

up the task as a duty for the 40th anniversary. They seemed to ignore the learning aspect.

Though the core team attempted to focus on student learning, not all students were

involved in the projects. Usually those more capable in language, information technol-

ogy and more reliable were chosen to be teachers' 'helpers'. These 'helpers' had the

liberty to select a sub-theme within a predetermined area. At the end of the project, there

was an exhibition with educators, parents and past students as invited guests.

Reflective comments regarding the time frame

Data collection for the school project lasted for almost 18 months from September

2001 to February 2003. It crossed over two academic years, but there was little

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ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

512

change in student-teacher grouping for maintenance of job stability. This led to the

following comments:

…even the S.5 & 7 students who were busily preparing for the high stake

public examination would have to help the mounting up of exhibits. This

is undesirable.

… during the summer holiday, it was difficult to keep close contact with

the students. Extra effort was put to call the students together again in

September. I (the teacher) could only get hold of a few reliable ones. Thus

participation of the rest was brought to the minimal. Individual assessment

was almost impossible. I could only give an impression grade.

The exhibition and reflective comments

The last episode was full of surprises to both students and teachers. The semi-open

exhibition of students' work was a new attempt. Spirits were high towards the due

day. Having focused on a sub-theme for 18 months, the participants gained a

comprehensive view of how significant each part contributed to the entire project.

The exhibition put all pieces of a jigsaw together. School members learned more about

the school and developed mutual appreciation of one another's accomplishment. It

was not only the project exhibits that contributed to the occasion; the uniform groups,

student-ushers and the various function groups worked closely in concerted efforts to

ensure the smooth running of the event. The participants recalled:

I was impressed by the performance of my students. They were adorable

that day, behaving as appropriate as could be. I'd never thought they

could be so trustworthy.

(teacher)

The uniform teams were self disciplined and organized. The 15 year old

leaders excelled leadership. They were reliable and able to command

respect and cooperation."

(spectator)

"The students were proud of their exhibition. I'm glad to have provided

an opportunity for acknowledging their efforts in public.

(teacher)

I like our exhibits. At first we were at a loss where to locate the relevant

information. I'm glad that we found the old school magazines. Now we

know more about the history of our school.

(student)

Our models are in good proportion. It's worth spending so many hours in

measuring the actual length and working out the scale. Comparing the

AMY A.M. YIP

previous and the current campus, we like the present one with extended

playground.

(student)

There were also reflective comments on the project arrangements.

If I knew well we had to lead project learning, I would have been more com-

mitted in the Staff Development Programme. Though there was the intro-

duction of mind mapping and project assessment, I did not get much from it.

I treated it as just another talk … I think we need another programme.

(teacher)

I was not aware that it's project learning. I took it as a duty to prepare for

the 40th anniversary of the School. I did not know that we had to assess

the students …

(teacher)

When I was asked about the learning process, I was mute. I didn't think

of it. I told myself silently that I must learn more about the process of

project learning …

(teacher)

PHASE 3: JULY 2003–JUNE 2004

Observation, reflection and identification of

problems and commendation

The positive appraisal of the 2003 exhibition encouraged the School to carry on with

the project approach. It brought a sense of achievement of students'work and a sense

of belonging to the School. Evaluating the previous attempt, the School identified the

following problems:

●The 40 th anniversary project was top-down and teacher-led. Attention should be

given to the learning process and fair student assessment.

●The assignment of the theme and sub-themes to the group hindered creativity and

restricted the development of project ownership

●Teachers were not ready to lead project learning. Further staff development was

required.

●The groups were too large to allow teacher-student or student-student interaction.

●Tension of struggling for class time should be minimized.

●The duration should not spread over 2 years.

The School also confirmed the following gains:

●The exhibition shed light on the entire process. There were enhanced senses of

belonging, achievement, self efficacy, establishment of student bond and

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ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

514

teacher-student rapport. It also gains parent support and external recognition. It

was image building and should be continued.

●The thematic approach provided a chance for staff collaboration. It facilitated

changes in teaching and learning. The approach helped extending learning activities

beyond school bounds.

●Staff development in July was helpful.

Plan for intervention and action

Bearing all these issues in mind, the core team sought advice from experienced

academics and school practitioners. Meanwhile individual members began to search

literature. In order to seek internal consensus, staff meetings were held to solicit

teachers' concerns. With a vision to promote student learning and support the reform,

a clear message was conveyed to teachers that:

●All teaching staff would be involved in project learning,

●Student projects would be thematic and multidisciplinary in nature.

●Life-wide education would be an essential element and preferably the theme

would support civic education,

●The project would focus on the development of generic skills suggested in the

reform documents (see Table 35.1),

●Themes and sub-themes would be selected by teachers and participating students

respectively,

●The project would involve S.1 & 2 students only. They would work in a small

group of 5 under the guidance of a teacher who would closely observe their

performance and assess them both formatively and authentically. A summative

grade would appear on the Student Report Card,

●The Librarian would join the Core Team to provide support to both teachers and

students.

●Timetable sessions would be arranged to facilitate life-wide activities and interaction

among teachers and students,

●A web page would be established to disseminate curriculum materials and

centralized operational plans,

●A Staff Development Programme would be organized before confirmation of

project planning.

These items were put into practice in September 2003. An innovative attempt was

made in the School calendar to allow time for life-wide learning. Nearly all teachers

were mobilized to lead project groups. Details of the project activities were centrally

prepared and announced via the school intranet. Prior to the first meeting of project

learning, the School let teachers select the themes for S.2 (Hong Kong Culture) and

S.1 (Our Neighbouring District). With the help of brainstorming and mind mapping,

sub-themes were confirmed in the first session. Small group projects started.

Meanwhile the library began to systematically reorganize the materials according to

the project themes so as to facilitate information search. Table 35.2 outlines the group

activities and assessment tasks.

AMY A.M. YIP

The exhibition and reflections

The highlight of S.2 Project Learning was the semi-open exhibition and student

presentation. The winning groups for oral presentation were invited to present again

in front of an audience of invited educators, parents, past students, the teachers and

all S.2 students. There were also open classroom presentations and poster presenta-

tions. Similar to the year before, it was a special occasion dedicated to the celebration

of student performance. Once again I was impressed by the enthusiasm of the

student-ushers, the masters of ceremony, student presenters and the overall team

spirit of all staff. A collaborative spirit filled the air. Below are listed some reflections

from staff and students:

I'm so proud of the students today …It was quite stressful to settle them

down to work and prepare the exhibits. I thought they didn't care. But to

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ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

TABLE 35.2 Activities and assessment tasks (Adapted from School Project web page)

Session Learning activities Assessment tasks Assessor

1 Confirmation of sub-theme via drawing of Generic skills Group

a mind map assessment form teacher

Reflective log

Mind map & sub-theme

selection

2 Plan for the project: Generic skills Group

preparing a project proposal with details assessment form teacher

of job distribution, location & details of Reflective log

life-wide activity and questionnaire Project proposal Chinese

design teacher

3 Plan for life-wide activity: Generic skills Group

Budget, record of available resources, assessment form teacher

preparation of questionnaire, route map, Reflective log

worksheet Questionnaire design Chinese

teacher

4 Life-wide activity Authentic performance Group

teacher

5 Post life-wide activity meeting: Generic skills

Data organization, analysis, drawing a assessment form

statistical chart, making inferences Reflective log

6 Preparation for presentation: Generic skills Group

Written report, development of oral assessment form teacher

presentation skills, rehearsal of oral Reflective log

presentation, peer and self appraisals Oral presentation Chinese

Peer & self appraisals teacher

Students

7 Oral presentation competition Authentic performance Chinese

teacher

Final Exhibition: Poster & project written report Authentic performance NA

presentation

516

my surprise, they were self demanding. Their presentation was fascinat-

ing. They showed skills acquired from friends and other sources …

(teacher)

He did it. I worried yesterday because he could not remember his lines

and appeared to be quite shy. Today he seemed to be another person. He

spoke with confidence, facing the audience with a broad smile and

speaking loudly with appropriate diction.

(teacher)

I've determined to make it a good show. I knew my weaknesses … my

honest friends gave me hints to improve …so I remembered with all my

heart their advice. They said my performance was okay …he he …

(student)

It's not easy to interview those passers-by successfully. Many rejected us.

If not for this project, I'll give up. Luckily, I've my teachers and fellow

students to encourage me. Look …these questionnaire results were col-

lected with courage and efforts …

(student)

Observation and reflection-in-action

Six-month project work progressed and kept every stakeholder as busy and engaged

as could be. The Core Team observed the process closely and got ready to support all

groups. In order to learn more about the difficulties encountered, a survey was con-

ducted. The results were tabled with necessary clarifications and encouragement.

During my interview with the core team members and teachers, I made reference to

the survey results and invited teachers to talk about their impression of difficulties

and authentic learning observed. The following responses were collected:

On Mind Mapping:

●majority of students were able to draw the mind map with teachers as the facilitators;

●examples are helpful to stimulate student thinking;

●warming up activities were necessary,

●students were capable of extending the map, but they had difficulty refining

details.

On Information Search:

●most students had not mastered search skills,

●observation reflected that some teachers had difficulties with the sub-theme and

were reluctant to seek assistance from colleagues.

On student abilities:

●weak language skills of students adversely affected design of interview question-

naire;

●students' analytical skills were inadequate to complete the complicated task;

AMY A.M. YIP

●best observable student performance found in street interview and project display day.

On Life-wide Activity:

●both students and teachers responded favourably.

On time frame:

●time schedule was too tight for so many tasks (meetings, worksheets, proposals,

written report drafts, reflective logs … );

●group meeting sessions inadequate for supervision, especially after the collection

of data. Students needed guidance in data processing, analysis and production of

the report.

On assessment:

●the appointment of Chinese teachers as assessors for the oral presentation compe-

tition caused unnecessary conflicts among groups.

●some teachers suffered from role conflict as they might be group tutors and

Chinese teachers.

Plan for intervention in S.1 project learning and action

According to the original plan, the activities would repeat in S.1, except the open exhi-

bition. Reviewing the problems raised in the staff survey, the core team was aware that

some personal factors had no immediate resolution, others suggested changes in the

second phase of project operation. The following measures were taken:

●Students would be asked to collect data and conduct the street interview, but they

were not required to do the analysis.

●Oral presentation would be assessed by all the group tutors involved in a class. In order

to avoid conflict of interest, the tutor would not give any grade to his/her own group.

●Mixed ability groups would be formed so as to relax the tension of uneven distri-

bution of talents among groups.

●Student assistants would be identified from S.2 to help teachers in S.1 project

learning.

●A Life Education session was transferred to Project Learning so that skills such as

mind mapping or IT would be introduced before project activities

●A session was added for group meeting, making the total 6 instead of 5.

●A special meeting would be taken up by class teachers and the project coordinator

so as to reduce group tutors' workload. This session would be for the development

of oral presentation skills through reviewing the video recordings of previous

presentation. This would provide a chance for peer evaluation.

●A semi-open presentation would be organized for S.1 students with parents as

spectators.

OBSERVATION AND REFLECTION

The S.1 Project Learning was brought to a close in the semi-open presentation. The

following shows what teachers learned:

●The theme on Our Neighbouring District is easier than Hong Kong

Culture. Students drew the mind map with less difficulty.

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ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

518

●The Life Education session on mind mapping skills seemed to work.

●Group tutor assessment is commendable.

●It is more reasonable not to require students to analyze the data. They

have enough to learn through this project, say, mind mapping, data

exploration and collection, working with peers, interviewing tech-

niques, power point presentation ……

●Younger students seem to be more cooperative. There is not much

trouble meeting them on time. They are more punctual in submission

of plans and worksheets.

●Parent attendance was encouraging. Their support and on-the-spot

feedback contributed positively on student learning.

DISCUSSION

The School took 4 years to develop the current mode of Project Learning and is

determined to on build this as a directed mode of learning in lower forms. In view of

the crowded curriculum in the upper forms and the pressure of the high stakes public

examination, adoption of this approach will be encouraged, but it will be at the

discretion of the subject teachers. Having reported the study in detail, it is possible to

summarize the experience of the School and make the following recommendations:

●Project learning activities should be recognized on the timetable and the school

calendar instead of merely an assignment.

●Project assessment results should be reported to parents either in the form of a

grade with a set of descriptors or written qualitative evaluation. The assessment

items should include not only the written report and student presentation, but also

student participation and performance during the learning process.

●Besides a written report, oral or performance presentation helps students internalize

the newly acquired knowledge.

●Lower form students learn best in small groups and should be guided / supported

by a tutor.

●Students generate motivation and ownership of their own learning when they can

make decisions of their project theme, information search activities and presentation

formats.

●Mind map is helpful in organizing themes and content items.

●Staff development programmes are necessary for teachers to acquire particular

skills. Prior notice of possible future duties in connection with the skills would

focus teachers' attention and energy on relevant aspects of the programme.

●Projects help the development of Generic Skills (see Table 35.1). Table 35.3 gives

an example of what the School has done.

CONCLUSION

Action research has gained much attention in Hong Kong since the introduction of

the curriculum reform in 2000. The reform document advocates a continuous

AMY A.M. YIP

improvement process while simultaneously acknowledges the strengths of the education

sector and announces that long standing practices would be maintained. These strengths

and long standing practices fall into an understanding of tacit knowledge. Teachers are

encouraged to change the culture of teaching and learning as well as reflect on daily

practice (CDC of HKSAR, 2000, pp. 16, 28 & 131). These emphases pave the way

for a form of inquiry that focuses on reflection and improvement of practice. This

study has been presented in a form similar to an action research because it observed

how practitioners enthusiastically reviewed and revised the curriculum through

reflection both in-action and on-action. The former refers to conscious thinking and

modification while on the job (Schon, 1983, 1987). The implementation processes

depict elements of a cyclical process where decision makers 'plan-act-observe-reflect'

on their daily professional experience and developed practical knowledge that are

useful to every day practice (Kemmis, 1988; Elliot, 1991; Grundy, 1997; Newman,

1998; Zeichner, 2000).

In the absence of formally conducted action research and a systematic method of

data collection, the project team has made good use of their tacit knowledge to tackle

problems and make suggestions for improvement. Relevant examples permeate my

description of the project processes. This study exemplifies how the School learned

at difference phases of implementing the project approach. The driving force is the

deliberation of the School to reform the habitual pattern of teaching and learning facing

the inevitable implementation problems, such as the struggle between manpower con-

straints and small group tutoring, the fight among subjects for more class time, the

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ACTION RESEARCH AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

TABLE 35.3 Examples of project activities and assessment items for developing generic skills

9 Generic skills Learning tasks Assessment

●Collaboration skills ●Small group project Project outcomes

●Communication skills ●Street interview, group

●Creativity discussion, oral presentation, ●Reflective learning

●Critical thinking skills poster presentation, written logbook

report ● Mind map

●Information ●Making critical comments ●Questionnaire design

technology skills during the project learning ●Interview records

●Numeracy skills process ●Data collection and

●Information search on the management

●Problem solving skills internet, word processing skills ●Drawing graphic

and power point presentation representations

●Self-management skills ●Oral presentation

●Skills report ●Data collection, processing and ●Project written

●Study skills drawing graphic representations

●Solving problems in association

with the project work

●Self monitoring of work

progress & sessional self

reflection

●All the above

520

benefits of and the arguments against the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach to

curriculum making, and the resentment of some teachers to extend their teaching

repertoire. Some teachers indicated:

I prefer teaching (lecturing) my class directly to taking them around

interviewing passers-by. That's something we're not familiar with. I need

more time to finish the syllabus.

The students don't know how to analyze the data. It's more efficient to

introduce the analytical results to them.

Subject-based projects are more manageable because I know where the

references are.

The School introduced the project approach in the "muddle of daily work"

(Newman,1998). It started with an inquiry about the aspirations and practices of

teaching with projects (Phase One and Two refers). When teachers viewed the

approach as a politically correct hyperbole instead of a vehicle to promote student

learning, it was extremely difficult to problematise and reconstruct habitual practices.

Should there be findings of locally conducted action research confirming the positive

effects of project learning, it will facilitate the development of a "professional learning

community" in the School. According to DuFour (2004) this "community" is aware

of the gap between their commitment to ensure learning for all students and the lack

of a coordinated strategy to respond when some fail to learn. Members of this com-

munity will fill up the gap with carefully designed strategies in terms of systematic,

timely and directive intervention programme to help the struggling students. An

essential aspect to make it happen is collaborative work where teachers could estab-

lish shared knowledge and understanding. The School of my study is steering

towards this direction. The multidisciplinary nature of student project work requires

staff working together. The small group setting of Phase Three (2003–04) encour-

aged collaboration not only at the level of teachers, but also the students. Reflections

recognizing desirable student performance during the exhibitions and presentations

provide valid evidences. The following views also demonstrate acceptance of the new

approach:

The multidisciplinary approach is commended, especially when we let

students select the topics they express an interest. There's ownership.

Also there's no ready made information to copy as commonly found in

subject-based projects. I've observed that our students are proud of the

originality of their inquiry topic and the results of the study.

As a Math. teacher, I don't have much experience in project learning and

know quite little about social science. I worried when I was asked to be

one of the group tutors. Thanks to the help of my colleague, I managed to

guide the kids complete their report. I've learned some techniques. The

procedural guide and assessment forms designed by the project coordi-

nators are helpful to people like me.

AMY A.M. YIP

The following excerpts of interviews represent the strategies of teachers to enable

students to learn in a caring and non-threatening mode. Teachers' experience is of

prime importance here in analyzing the situations and finding a feasible solution.

I divide the day spared for the life-wide activity into the morning session

and afternoon session and label them as A and B. A is for the afternoon

and B for the morning. Isn't it funny? Should it be the other way round?

Don't you know why? This is one way to make them learn English and

remember. B is for 'before noon'and A for 'afternoon' …

At first they were very shy and timid. Students need encouragement to

develop perseverance to complete the task.

My student refused to attend project meetings. Everyone was annoyed.

I know there should be some hidden reason. He wouldn't tell me. So I

made a few guesses and let him choose. Eventually he admitted his

worries about arriving home late and a concern about a TV programme.

I phoned his parents in his presence, explained the need to work after

school hours and successfully convinced his mother to record the TV pro-

gramme for him. Both the student and his mother were happy for my call.

The mother got a chance to talk to me and learn more about her son. My

student was happy because he got his problems solved. He felt my care

and respect because I phoned in front of him.

When my students had difficulty finding the focus, I let them visit the rel-

evant place first and took pictures. It was from the photographs that they

learned the technique of categorizing information and further develop

the mind map.

These reflections reveal the ways that teachers use their understanding of students' capa-

bilities and limitations to capture every opportunity to help them learn. Let us share Katz

and Chard's (2000) quotation that projects cultivate 'the life of the young child's mind'

(p.5–6). On top of knowledge and skills, the social, emotional, moral, aesthetic and spir-

itual sensibilities are developed. Benefits of adopting the project approach are multifac-

eted in Hong Kong schools today. If properly planned and implemented, not only do

students learn more actively and independently, teachers would extend their teaching

repertoire and schools would have a better chance to develop a professional learning

community. To reiterate the recognition in the reform documents of teachers' strengths

and long standing practices, and to acknowledge development of practical knowledge in

the course of action, I sincerely call for the attention of university academics and expe-

rienced researchers to help teachers publicize their tacit knowledge being generated in

the course of practice. The knowledge base for teaching and learning will expand.

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Stevenson, J. A. (1921) The Project Method of Teaching. New York: The Macmillan Co.

Zeichner, K. (2000) Educational Action Research, in Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. (eds), Handbook of

Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. London : Sage Publications, pp. 273–284.

Kowloon Tong School (Secondary Section) Website : http://www.ktsss.edu.hk/main.htm (browsing date

May 23 2004).

Project Approach Website: http://www.project-approach.com/ (browsing date May 31, 2004).

AMY A.M. YIP

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes aspects of teachers' professional growth during a 2-year

professional development programme in Guandong, China. The project was a part of

national curriculum reform in Mainland China. One component of this curriculum

reform is to integrate values education across the curriculum while simultaneously

helping teachers to adopt current theories of learning and teaching about the curriculum

area itself, and it is this aspect that was the focus of the trial in Guandong Province.

The approach to professional development that was used for this part of the project

was a combination of seminars and action research to investigate solutions to a series

of problems that arose as the participating teachers explored the reform. This kind of

approach was chosen because of research that has clearly identified lack of appro-

priate professional development as being one of the most serious obstacles to fully

integrating new teaching approaches into the curriculum, and one-time-only workshops

as ineffective in making teachers comfortable with new approaches or integrating them

into their programmes (NCREL, 2003). This project aimed to incorporate all the

elements of professional development that have been found to be important: a

connection to student learning, hands-on practice, a variety of learning experiences,

curriculum-specific applications, new roles for teachers, collegial learning, active

participation of teachers, ongoing processes, sufficient time, assistance and support,

administrative support, adequate resources, continuous funding and built-in evaluation

(NCREL, 2003).

An essential pre-requisite to teacher change is motivating them to want to know

about the change and explore how it can affect their practice (Hord et al ., 1987).

Action research can be a successful way to provide this motivation to persevere with

the adoption of teaching reforms, not only to convince teachers of the value of the

reform, but also that problems and obstacles can be overcome if they persevere with

adapting the new ideas to fit within the constraints of their particular situations.

Teacher growth is facilitated by doing, exploring, trying, failing, changing and

adapting strategies, overcoming obstacles after many trials, and sharing failures, suc-

cesses and techniques that work (McKenzie, 2002). However, it is the process of failing

and facing obstacles that often causes teachers to give up. Research on teacher

growth has identified a number of such obstacles. Some come about because of

insufficient attention being given at the beginning of the initiative to issues such as

523

MARGARET TAPLIN, DOROTHY NG FUNG PING

AND HUANG FUQIAN

36. THE IMPACT OF A COLLABORATIVE MODEL FOR

CURRICULUM RESTRUCTURING ON TEACHERS'

PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 523–538.

524

teachers' inclination, philosophy, readiness and support (McKenzie, 2002). Foremost

amongst the obstacles that have been documented are financial constraints, resistance

to changing roles and communication problems (Bullough and Kauchak, 1997).

Another can be a lack of sufficient emotional support, from peers or others, at the

difficult times (Cole, 1992). A further obstacle to sustained teacher growth is that the

initiative can often fall apart when the main instigator or supporter leaves (Mullen

and Sullivan, 2002). In order to overcome these obstacles, teachers need the support

of different people, including school leaders, outside experts and their own peer

networks (Bullough and Kauchak, 1997) at different times, and there needs to be

considerable involvement and sharing of responsibility by all partners (Hough,

1975). Hence, for the project reported here, it was considered essential to have a team

of partners who were all able to contribute in different ways at different phases of the

teachers' growth, according to the obstacles they were facing at those times.

While we wanted to encourage the teachers to learn about current theories of

learning and teaching, and to actually consider using these in their own classrooms,

we knew all too well that there were obstacles which would probably prevent this

from happening. In Chinese primary schools, these obstacles include large class

sizes, time constraints, pressure to cover the syllabus and achieve high examination

results, and the fact that each subject specialist teacher is responsible for several

classes. We were confident that the teachers understood what we were teaching them

and that most of them probably had a genuine belief in the value of the teaching

approaches we were discussing, but we knew that when it came time to implement

the ideas in their own classes, many of them would simply revert to the traditional

methods of teaching they were used to and by which they had, themselves, been

taught.

The curriculum reform was still very new at the time of this project and, even

though moral and civics education have traditionally been taught as separate subjects,

the teachers had only ever experienced the idea of a teacher-led, examination-driven

and text-book oriented approach to teaching in their subject areas. In other words,

these teachers were being asked to adopt some changes that were vastly different

from their existing conceptions of teaching.

Owston (2004) has proposed a model for sustainability of classroom innovation that

identifies essential and contributing factors. This model has been utilised in the design

of the project described here because it gives useful insights into the ways in which dif-

ferent partners can make different contributions. Figure 36.1 shows the essential

aspects of this model, and the corresponding partners in the present study who were

able to contribute to each of these aspects. For this project, there were five key partners.

From the educational perspective, the partners were the local district Education

Department, the curriculum reform expert who is a professor in a university in Mainland

China and two teacher educators from Hong Kong with expertise in the curriculum

areas of Mathematics and Chinese Language combined with expertise in the integra-

tion of values education into these subjects (hereafter referred to as the subject experts).

In addition, a Hong Kong-based charitable organisation provided funding for the proj-

ect, including for administrative support. Financial incentive to participate was given

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

by the sponsoring body and the Education Department gave further incentive by

acknowledging the teachers' participation for purposes such as promotion. Finally the

teachers themselves were considered to be key members of the partnership. A sixth

group, the school principals, are considered to be important but to date their involve-

ment has been to provide tacit support rather than an active involvement. However, the

support of school leadership is acknowledged as extremely important and the plan for

the next phase is to showcase to the principals what their teachers have been doing and

to invite them to suggest how they can expand this work in their schools in future.

PROJECT BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY

This professional development programme was implemented over a 20-month period

from July 2002 to March 2004, with twenty primary school teachers. It was a joint

project supported by the South China Normal University Department of Curriculum

and Instruction, the local District Education Department, and the Institute of Sathya

Sai Education of Hong Kong. As mentioned earlier, the project was connected to the

introduction of curriculum reforms in China that aimed to incorporate values educa-

tion into subject curricula along with a shift from teacher-centred to student-centred

learning. Specifically it aimed to:

●guide a group of teachers to develop, implement and evaluate a values education

curriculum embedded within their subject teaching, consistent with the current

curriculum reforms in China, and

525

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

Conditions of Owston's Essential or Partner in this study most able to

sustainability model contributing condition contribute

Perceived value of Essential Education department officials

innovation curriculum reform expert

colleagues

Teacher professional Essential Subject experts

development curriculum reform expert

Administrative support Essential Education department

principals

sponsoring body

Innovative champions Contributing Subject experts

curriculum reform expert

teachers' peer group

Supportive plans and Contributing Curriculum reform expert

policies education department

Funding Contributing Sponsoring body

Support within school Contributing Teachers'peer group

Support from outside Contributing Education department

school sponsoring body

curriculum reform and subject experts

Figure 36.1. Partners able to contribute to various aspects of sustainability of initiative

526

●monitor and evaluate the phases in teachers' developmental growth in the imple-

mentation of teaching reform in values education.

In this chapter we will describe the major obstacles that the participating teachers

encountered at different stages of their journey. In particular we will examine how the

combined input of the five partner groups helped them to overcome these obstacles

and eventually reach a stage where they could contribute ideas and leadership in the

curriculum restructuring.

PARTICIPANTS

The participants were twenty teachers, nominated in pairs (one Chinese Language

and one Mathematics specialist) from ten selected primary schools in the Qujiang

district of Guandong Province. They were selected by the District Education Office

because they were regarded as leading teachers in their schools. They were experi-

enced teachers and had all taught for at least five years. The teachers met with the

programme facilitators for 2–4 days four times during the project and carried out

some small-scale action research investigations in their schools during the interim

periods.

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROJECT

The theoretical framework for the project was based on the model of effective strate-

gies for the stages of learning/adoption used by Sherry and Gibson (2002). This

model is summarised in Figure 36.2, which also describes the strategies that were

utilised for this project.

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

Figure 36.2. Effective strategies for the stages of learning/adoption

(Adapted from Sherry and Gibson, 2002)

Corresponding action

Developmental state Effective strategies in this project

Stage 1 Teacher as Learner Training:demonstrations of Teachers were paired, i.e. 2

In this information- promising practices, teachers from each school to

gathering stage, teachers ongoing professional enable peer discussion and

learn the knowledge and development by peers support

skills necessary for rather than one-shot First seminar:

performing instructional workshops by outside ● Introduction to terms and

tasks using [the new experts; inservice sessions concepts of values education

innovation] that stress the alignment of ●Specific examples of

the initiative with integration into subject area

curriculum and standards ●Demonstration lesson/s by

expert mentors

Setting of first school-based

problem task

●Explore ways of altering

aspects of existing curriculum

Continued

527

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

materials to reflect values

education

Post First Seminar:

●School visits by project team:

classroom observation and

individual interviews

(formative evaluation)

Stage 2 Teacher as Adopter Resources, access to help Second seminar

In this stage, teachers and support; teachers who ● Talk by expert teacher who

progress through stages of can mentor newcomers and shared his experiences.

personal and task provide them with care and Further clarification of

management concern as the comfort as well as concepts by project team

experiment with the information. ●Demonstration lessons

innovation, begin to try it ● Time made available for

out in their classrooms, and discussions between

share their experiences with colleagues in cognate groups

their peers. ● Ongoing provision by

workshop leaders of resources

and materials

Second school-based problem

task

●Prepare best three sample

lesson plans and reflections on

strategies such as use of silent

sitting

●Identify problems/issues for

potential action research

investigation

Stage 3 Teacher as Co- Workshops and resources Seminar 3

Learner with strategies for ●Some revision of key concepts

In this stage, teachers focus enhancing instruction and and philosophies of session 1

on developing a clear integrating the new and more in-depth study of

relationship between the approach into the these, particularly to address

innovation and the curriculum; collegial issues raised previously by

curriculum, rather than sharing of integration and teachers (visiting expert and

concentrating on task assessment ideas peer)

management aspects. ●Demonstration lessons with

time for teachers to give

feedback and discuss

●Teachers asked to bring with

them a reflection on issues that

have arisen – time allowed for

discussion

Third school-based problem task

●Commence classroom-based

action research on issues of

own concern

Seminar 4

Corresponding action in this

Developmental stage Effective strategies project

Figure 36.2. Continued

Continued

528 MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

●Further resources provided in

response to issues raised by

teachers (e.g. asssessment and

discipline) – time for discussion

and personal reflection on

these

●Further demonstration lessons

with time for reflection and

discussion

Stage 4 Teacher as Administrative support:an Seminar 4

Reaffirmer or Rejecter incentive system that is ●Reflection and discussion with

In this stage, teachers valued by adopting mentors and between peers

develop a greater teachers. Raise awareness about action research outcomes

awareness of intermediate of intermediate learning ●Criterion-based reward system:

learning outcomes. They outcomes such as increased All teachers who achieve a

begin to create new ways to time on task, lower certain set of criteria will

observe and assess impact absenteeism, greater receive the same level of

on student products and student engagement; reward

performances evidence of impact on Fourth problem task

student performances ●Group problem-based learning

task to explore issues of

assessment and discipline

Stage 5 Teacher as Leader* Incentives for co-teaching ●2 or 3 outstanding

In this stage, experienced onsite workshops; release teachers identified as

teachers expand their roles time and other semi- mentor teachers to share

to become active permanent role changes to their experiences with

researchers who carefully allow peer coaching and beginners

observe their practice, outside consulting. Support ●release of 1–2 teachers in

collect data, share the from an outside network of each cognate area to

improvements in practice teacher-leaders; structured prepare suitable materials –

with peers and teach new time for leading in-house find stories, re-write

members. Their skills discussions and workshops. textbook problems etc.

become portable. Transfer of skills if teacher

goes to another school

*Planned as an ongoing process over the next 1–3 years.

VALUES EDUCATION FRAMEWORK

The values education framework adopted for this project was the Sathya Sai Education

in Human Values (SSEHV) model. This model is supported by national education

department policies in several countries. It is a secular model that is concerned with

putting back character development and values into education and developing all

domains of the student's personality: cognitive, physical, mental, emotional and spir-

itual. It is based on five human values that are universal and inter-dependent, Truth,

Right Conduct, Peace, Love and Non-violence, and is concerned with eliciting these

values that are already inherent in all of us. The fundamental principle of SSEHV is

Corresponding action in this

Developmental stage Effective strategies project

Figure 36.2. Continued

that all teaching is based on love and that the teacher's example in living the values is

the most critical component of values education. Its goals are:

●to bring out human excellence at all levels: character, academic, and "being";

●the all-round development of the child (the heart as well as the head and the hands);

●to help children to know who they are;

●to help children to realise their full potential; and

●to develop attitudes of selfless service.

DATA COLLECTION

The data reported in this chapter were collected from notes taken by the researchers

during teachers' discussions about problems in the workshops, observation of

demonstration lessons and reflective notes in which the teachers were asked to record

their experiences, particularly their ability to adapt the new ideas to classroom situations.

Since all discussions and written records were in Chinese, the transcripts have been

paraphrased from the translations into English for reporting in this chapter.

The obstacles teachers encountered at different stages

This section will consider the most common obstacles that teachers experienced at

different phases of their journey, and which of the partners were best able to help

them at each stage.

Stage 1 Teachers as learners. The first obstacle that the teachers encountered at this

stage was understanding the concept of values education. In their reflections about

this stage of their growth, typical comments were:

What's different about education in human values and moral education

class – at first I didn't think there were any differences – now I realise it

is a different style of teaching different values to develop character.

Lack of understanding of values education was a great obstacle. But with

the help of the professors [curriculum and subject experts] and teachers

[fellow participants in the project], I could solve the uncertainty.

In the early stages I found it hard to understand the difference between

general studies and values education. The professors and the teachers

helped me a lot. The professors gave me a lot of information in order to

help me understand the values education in more detail. I could learn a

lot from the real working process and the teachers' discussions.

Here, the subject experts were the dominant partners. In particular, they had to give very

specific examples of the opportunities to talk about the five values during Mathematics

and Chinese lessons. When the teachers gave demonstration lessons, it was necessary

for the subject experts to be very direct in giving examples of opportunities for talking

about values that arose during the lessons. Some examples of this kind of feedback are

shown in Figure 36.3, with the vocabulary describing the values highlighted in bold.

529

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

530 MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

Figure 36.3. Examples of facilitator feedback given to help overcome first obstacle

(understanding the concept underlying the reform)

Comment about education in human

Comment about Mathematics values/suggested key vocabulary to

Aspect of lesson teaching use with children

Introduction of a Sets a real-world context for the Non-violence: Creates awareness of

problem about problem the environment. You can talk about

China's wild the dangers for some animals of

animals as a becoming extinct and what each of

fraction of the us, as individuals, can do to help to

world's wild protect them (e.g. using plant-based

animals rather than animal-based medicines)

Concept of 'one' Very important to establish the idea Peace: What do we need to do to

or 'whole' of a fraction as a part of the whole become whole people? Can we feel

whole and complete if we have a lot of

material possessions? (Lead them to the

idea that we can only really feel whole

and complete if we have inner peace.)

Asking students This is a good practice to encourage, Love: There are many different ways

to find different to get them to think mathematically. of arriving at the correct answer. The same

ways to get the applies to life. People have different ways

same answer of doing things but we cannot judge them

if their ways are different from ours.

Group Often children can understand Love: teamwork. If one group

discussion to something explained by their peers member is unable to understand, it is the

help students better than an explanation by an group's responsibility to help him/her.

who still did not adult.

understand

'Mirror' Good use of estimation and problem- Right Action: This could be a good chance

problem solving skills to talk a little bit more about mirrors (per-

haps in a silent sitting at the end) – tell

them that other people are mirrors of our

behaviour and that when we see some-

thing we dpn't like in another person it

often means we have to look at ourselves

to see if it is really something in our own

behaviour we have to change.

Story about This relates to a real-life event, Love: Developing a sense of

flood and story which helps children to see that compassion towards those who have been

about Shao Hua Mathematics is a tool for describing unfortunate to suffer in a flood; helping

and Shao Li real-life. these people by giving seeds to them.

donating money (Could this lesson be followed up by

for children who asking the children to sacrif ice something

cannot afford to that they like – eg buying candy or going

go to school to the game parlour – and using the

money they save to donate to the flood

victims? In SSEHV we call this "Ceiling

on Desires".)

Continued

This process was probably more difficult for the Mathematics group than for the

Chinese group because the latter were dealing with curriculum material that already

focused to some extent on the values inherent in the traditional Chinese culture,

whereas the Mathematics teachers did not have even suitable examples in their cur-

riculum material to draw on. They were also inhibited by the fact that they had never

previously been permitted to change even the wording in the examples in the textbook.

When the facilitator suggested that they could begin by changing the wording of text-

book problems to reflect values like sharing and helping others (see Figure 36.4 for an

example) they were incredulous and actually asked, "Can we do that?"

In this case they were not prepared to believe the subject experts that they could in

fact make even such a minor kind of change. It was not until the curriculum reform

expert said it was acceptable that they were prepared to even entertain the idea.

Stage 2 Teachers as adopters. In their first attempts to incorporate these new ideas

into their teaching the major obstacles the teachers experienced were time and cur-

riculum constraints. The subject experts had the major role here, giving them direct

materials, direct demonstrations and direct feedback in class.

There were further perceived obstacles arising from a sense of mismatch between

implementing the innovation and their existing responsibilities to cover the curricu-

lum and have their students achieve good marks:

In the early stages there was inconsistency between the implementation

of values education and my duties with the (curriculum) programme.

531

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

Percentage Again, this use of real-world Love: This is a very important aspect

Comparin examples encourages children to of helping children to develop self -

statistics of think more widely about acceptance and self-esteem as well

China and other Mathematics and how it is a tool as tolerance of others. We need to

countries that helps us to understand our emphasise repeatedly that everyone

comparing with world. has his/her special gifts/talents and

another class the help them to think how they can use

students who are these for the good of society. We also

good in study, need to encourage them to be tolerant

sports etc. of others and to look for the good

things that others can do, not at what

they cannot do.

Comment about education in human

Comment about Mathematics values/suggested key vocabulary to

Aspect of lesson teaching use with children

Change

Shao Hui bought 40kg of rice. He ate 5/8. How much was left?

Shao Hui bought 40kg of rice. He kept 5/8 of it for his own family to eat, and gave the rest to a poor

family who lived near his house. How much did he give away?

Figure 36.4. Example of a text-book problem re-worded to reflect values

Figure 36.3. Continued

532

They also started to express concerns that the project was compromising

the amount of curriculum content they could cover:

We are finding that the characters of the children in the experimental

class are improving but we are worried that their scores are going down

because we are spending less time on the lesson

Here it was only the Education Department officials who could give them the reassur-

ance they were seeking, since they were not prepared at this stage to believe the subject

experts that the overall results would improve in the long term (which they eventually

began to do in many of the experimental classes towards the end of the project).

In this case the teachers needed support from a combination of partners; the subject

experts to give them the ideas for incorporating the maximum of values education

while making the minimum change to the content of the lesson, the curriculum

reform expert to show them that this practice was in fact in keeping with the big picture

of the national reform and the local education department officials who were able to

reassure them that their credibility as teachers would not be compromised by trying

the new ideas.

Several of the teachers also expressed concern about the lack of support from their

other colleagues who were not involved in the project:

In addition to the examination pressure the leader is only concerned with

the results of my class rather than the difficulties I have.

Since this has fairly serious implications not only for the teachers' confidence to con-

tinue with the initiative but also for future sustainability, it is essential to provide the

appropriate support for this problem. At this stage of the project the main support came

from the Education Department officials, who gave reassurance that they were doing

the right thing and placed it in the context of the future plans for education reform in

the region. However, the teachers themselves pointed out the need for support from

their own school leadership. As mentioned earlier, the school principals' support was

solicited by the Education Department at the beginning of the project but prior to this

stage had been mostly in terms of allowing the teachers to try out the ideas in experi-

mental classes. In the last formal session of the project we invited more active partici-

pation by the principals by inviting them to attend a showcase of what the teachers in

the project had been doing and then to participate in a forum to discuss how they can

develop the ideas further across their schools. Here, again, is an important role for the

sponsoring organisation, since it will be necessary to assist with financial support and

resources to implement the actions suggested by the principals.

Another obstacle for the teachers as adopters, once they had accepted and under-

stood the basic concept of the reform, was lack of ideas. As the following comment

indicates, the subject and curriculum reform experts were the most able to give sup-

port in this regard:

In the early stages I did not have any ideas for implementing values

education in my classes. After being advised by the [curriculum reform

and subject experts] my process became smoother.

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

It was at this stage that another important aspect of the partnership emerged. This was

the role of the teachers themselves. Through observing their peers conducting

demonstration lessons and through engaging in reflective discussions about these

lessons and their attempts in general, the teachers were able to provide a great source

of support and inspiration to each other:

In the early stages I did not have any ideas for implementing values edu-

cation in my classes, for example deciding on the content. Now I still have

difficulty but the guidelines give me great support. The [curriculum and

subject experts] and my colleagues give me encouragement and support.

In the early stages I found there were some conflicts between the experiment

and the teaching in my school. The professors and my colleague helped

me a lot.

In this latter comment, 'colleague' refers to the teacher's partner in the programme

from the same school.

In the early stages of 'teachers as adopters' the subject experts asked the teachers

to experiment with the use of silent sitting (a technique fundamental to SSEHV, in

which students sit silently for a few minutes and tap into their own inner strengths

and resources to calm the extraneous chatter in their minds and often to solve problems),

since this was something that could be added on as an 'extra' at the beginning of the

class without taking up too much time and hence give them some confidence that

they were moving forward with the initiative. This was one of the first breakthroughs

for many of the teachers because they were able to have some successful results with

their students (particularly better concentration and better behaviour):

Silent sitting is a way of thinking, gives people a sense of quiet, they are

very free to think about anything and escape temporarily from reality –

therefore it decreases the pressure of work. I use it personally to have a

break mentally or physically.

The silent sitting is very good to nurture their study habits. It encourages

the students to think, try new things and change their attitudes towards

their studies. They are now beginning to see that they are studying for

themselves, not for their parents.

Stage 3 Teachers as co-learners. As the teachers moved into the phase of co-learners,

the subject and curriculum reform experts and the education department officials

discovered that we were able to take a big step back. As the teachers themselves

began to exercise their growing confidence and ability to verbalise about the new

paradigm in order to deepen their understanding of the concept and how to apply it

(Barr and Tagg, 1995) they turned more to their own peers for support.

The teachers who gave demonstration lessons at this stage showed evidence of a

considerable increase in their incidental modelling of values that had not been there

previously. For example in one Mathematics lesson, on the topic of percentage,

the teacher went to a lot of trouble to find up-to-date statistics about social and

533

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

534

environmental problems in China and to set problems that incorporated values edu-

cation. Apart from this understanding of how to adjust the lesson content, there was

an emerging sense of the integration of values education with both the content and

the hidden curriculum of the lesson that can be characterised by the combination of

a number of features such as:

●encouraging children to think for themselves and discuss (Right Action)

●encouraging children to help and support each other (Right Action, Love)

●accepting their answers, not making them feel bad if they made a mistake (Love)

●creating a 'safe' environment, with children feeling safe to try ideas and learn

from mistakes (Peace, Love)

●showing they valued what children were saying – teacher listening to children and

children listening to each other (Love)

●using homework to ask children to research other areas related to both percentage

and values.

The teachers were still concerned that they were faced with the obstacle of having

to fit in with all the time and curriculum constraints as previously and also expressed

their concern about the lack of time to prepare the new values-related materials – but

the teachers themselves became the dominant players in the partnership and learned

a lot from observing each other and discussing

Stage 4 Teachers as reaffirmers or rejecters. As the teachers began to raise more com-

plex questions and issues, it indicated that they were now moving to the phase of being

concerned primarily about the impacts of the innovations on their students. For example,

they were ready to explore deeper and enhance the quality of their teaching further.

What can we do now to deepen our personal understanding of the values

and to deepen the experiment?

How can we improve the quality of our classroom teaching [in relation to

eliciting values while offering rich pedagogical experiences]?

Furthermore, they were showing signs that they were becoming concerned about a

holistic integration of values education, including how it impacted upon discipline in

and out of the classroom:

I try to use love to move my students – if every teacher treats them with love

then sometimes there is no punishment at all, so sometimes I have a very

good relationship with the students, sometimes they are disrespectful.

I have one doubt – if we just teach students in a positive way, if we avoid

them seeing bad things, how can they learn to discriminate? If they don't

see the ugly, how can they appreciate the beauty? Is it good to just show

the positive things? How about the negative things? For example, I have

taught my children that when they go to another person's room they don't

touch things and make a mess, but then others come to our room and do

this, so the children wonder why others can do this and they can't.

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

Another interesting question that reflected a deeper level of thinking was concerned

with the effects of the values education strategy on children who are at different stages

of their character development:

About the power of love: If there are two seeds and one is very strong but

the other is not so good – if I give love to the not-so-good it still won't

grow as strong as the good one, so is it better to concentrate the love on

the strong one?

They were also starting to think, at this stage, about the interactive effects between

school and home:

A colleague told me "5 plus 2



0". I didn't understand. She told me that

5 means the 5 days in school, 2 means the 2 days outside school, maybe

equals 0 because the effects of the two days at home can undo the effects of

the five days at school – the effects may be negated by outside things. How

can we connect family and community education with school education?

Sometimes I feel there is some difference in the students' behaviour – they

are good in front of their teachers but different at home. I have been sur-

prised to hear they do bad things at home, even to their own grandmothers

they have been rude, therefore we must keep in close contact with their

families so we can know the two sides of the children.

Another issue raised at this stage, for the first time, was that of evaluation:

How can we evaluate the moral education? We do the experiments but we

don't know how to see the effects.

In all of the above, it can be seen that, although the questions they were asking

were more complex than those they were asking in the earlier stages of the project,

the teachers reverted to their former dependence on the facilitators to provide

answers rather than attempting to suggest solutions themselves. Therefore, the facil-

itators structured problem-solving tasks for the fourth face-to-face session (see

Figure 36.1) in such a way as to provide some useful information but to put the

responsibility for thinking about the solutions onto the teachers themselves.

The teachers also began to ask questions about how to move beyond their own

classrooms and integrate values education as a whole-school approach. They seemed

to be no longer thinking of it as a fragmented thing applicable only to their experi-

mental classes but as a total school programme, in and out of class.

It was interesting to note that at this stage they were turning more to the Education

Department officers for support with policy-related matters than to the curriculum

experts for support with pedagogical ideas. It was clearly important to them to have

official support of the ideas that the curriculum experts were portraying and that they

were beginning to come up with for themselves. However, with the pedagogical ideas

they seemed to have developed a greater independence to think of their own strategies

and to give feedback to each other. Examples of the feedback given by the Education

535

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

536

Department officers at this stage include:

[In response to the teacher comment: 'I really love my students, am

seldom angry with them. For example if they drop rubbish, the first time

I tell them not to do it, the second time I take them to see how dirty it is.

If they still do it a third time, those who throw rubbish have to clean the

school for a week – then they stop. Sometimes this is not advocated now,

so I could get into trouble.'] We must distinguish this kind of penalty from

those that will hurt the students psychologically. This type won't hurt

them psychologically.

The above reinforced the teacher's need for official endorsement that what she was

doing was acceptable with regard to policy, irrespective of whether or not it was good

pedagogical practice.

[In response to teachers' questions about discipline policy, competition

and community expectations] Teacher practice is important – whatever

you ask students, you should also do first. Teachers must love the students

– this is the foundation of EHV. This doesn't mean love without any kind of

punishment – if students form bad habits, if you don't use 'punishment'

you can't get good effects – but first there must be clear understanding

about the whole situation and make the right kind of punishment. Silent

sitting is a main characteristic of EHV – what can we do to make silent

sitting better? EHV must exist everywhere, so don't think that just the con-

tent is EHV, everything we do is the process of doing EHV. Competition:

In relation to EHV, I don't think EHV must avoid competition. EHV is not

evaluated by academic knowledge – the purpose of these experiments is

not only to improve academic achievement, but to develop character,

therefore you must send this message to your headmasters. One problem

in Chinese education is that the family, community and school education

are separated – this must be changed so the school and parents have a

close relationship. The evaluation by academic achievement alone is a

shortcoming of the education system so don't worry – this will change. Try

to fill in the gap between school education and family education – keep in

close contact with parents by phone calls and visiting family.

Again what the teachers required here was official reassurance that they were on the

right track from a policy, as opposed to a pedagogical, point of view.

Stage 5 Teachers as Leaders. At this stage of the project there is only a small num-

ber of teachers emerging as leaders. One, for example, has written an article for a

professional journal in the district describing some practical applications of educa-

tion in human values in the curriculum based on his experiences. Another has set up

a whole-school integration programme in Mathematics and Chinese Language with

future plans to expand to other subject areas. It appears that as the teachers move

more into the role of leaders in their own schools they will become concerned mainly

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

with policy-related support, hence the dominant partners will be the Education

Department and the school principals. It is also envisaged that the sponsoring body

and the Education Department will have active contributions to make at this stage in

terms of financial and incentive support to sustain the initiatives and expand them to

a school-wide level.

DISCUSSION

In this chapter we have described the roles of various partners in contributing to

teacher professional growth in developing a curriculum reform over a 20-month

period. Five main partners played key roles at different stages of the teachers'growth.

The subject experts were critical in helping the teachers to understand the concepts

and philosophies underlying the reform and to give specific examples, resources and

feedback, especially in the early stages of the programme. The curriculum reform

experts were important to reinforce what the subject experts were saying in the over-

all context of the reform. The Education Department officials' participation was

necessary to provide professional incentives for the teachers to sustain their partici-

pation and to provide support and reassurance about policy-related matters, and their

role became stronger as the teachers' knowledge and understanding of the reform

became stronger and they started to think of wider issues. Financial incentive to

participate was given by the sponsoring body and was another critical component of

the sustainability, particularly at the times when the participants could have been

tempted to give up. The participating teachers themselves became critical partners,

particularly once they had grasped the basic ideas, as they became a source of

support and inspiration for each other. A sixth group, the school leaders, have been

tacit supporters of the project to this stage, but are anticipated to have a more active

role in the partnership as we move into the next phase of encouraging the teacher to

take on leadership roles in extending the programme to become school based. It

appears from the examples presented in this chapter that the combined effects of the

various partners were effective in helping teachers to overcome the different kinds of

obstacles that they encountered at different stages of their growth.

One particularly interesting outcome was the way in which the teachers themselves

emerged as significant contributing partners within a fairly short time. In this study

we invited two teachers from each school in order to ensure some peer support within

schools as well as between schools. However, given the importance of teachers as

partners that emerged from this study, it is recommended that in future programmes we

will invite four teachers from each school in order to strengthen further the potential for

peer support.

Another interesting question that has arisen from our experience is the best time at

which to involve the school principals. At the beginning they were willing to allow

their teachers to participate but were not really interested and, for example, did not

accept the invitation to attend the opening ceremony or any of the face-to-face sessions.

However, in the longer-term their active support is needed if the innovation is to be

sustained or expanded school-wide. Therefore we decided to try training the teachers

537

MODEL ON TEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL GROWTH

538

first, then inviting the principals to a showcasing of what the teachers have achieved,

after which we consulted them about how to move to a school-wide basis.

One further implication that has emerged from our experiences is the need to make

provisions for helping teachers to find suitable resources and adapt teaching materials,

since the time required to do this task was one of the biggest obstacles they described

throughout the programme. Hence, a recommendation for the future sustainability is

to make provision for the sponsoring body to support the employment of an admin-

istrative person to assist with this kind of material development.

Overall, the experiences of this programme have indicated clearly that the partnership

between various stakeholder groups was critical to the teachers'sustained participation

and growth within the project. In fact, it is clear that no one partner could have assisted

them effectively to overcome the full range of the problems that they encountered. It

is suggested that the experiences and insights encountered during this project are not

unique to the Mainland China context and that they have implications for teacher

professional development universally.

REFERENCES

Barr, R. and Tagg, J. (1995) From Teaching to Learning – a New paradigm for Undergraduate Education.

Change, November/December, pp. 13–25.

Bullough, R. and Kauchak, D. (1997) Partnerships Between Higher Education and Secondary Schools:

Some Problems. Journal of Education for Teaching, vol. 23, 3, pp. 215–234.

Cole, A. (1992) Teacher Development in the Workplace: Rethinking the Appropriation of Professional

Relationships. Teachers College Record, vol. 94, 2, pp. 365–391.

Hord, S., Rutherford, L., Huling-Austin, L. and Hall, G. (1987) Taking Charge of Change. Alexandria, VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Hough, W. (1975) School-University Partnership for Teacher Growth. Educational Leadership , February,

3007–53309.

McKenzie, J. (2002) Beyond Toolishness: The Best Ways for Teachers to Learn and Put New Technologies

to Good Use. Multimedia Schools, vol. 9, 4, pp. 34–39.

Mullen, C. and Sullivan, E. (2002) The New Millennium High School: Tomorrow's School Today?

Leadership in Education, vol. 5, 3, pp. 273–284.

NCREL (North Central Regional Education Laboratory) (2003) Critical Issue: Providing Professional

Development for Effective Technology Use. http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods

/technlgy/te1000.htm.

Owston, R. (2004) Contextual Factors that Sustain Innovative Pedagogical Practice Using Technology: An

International Study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research

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Sherry, L. and Gibson, D. (2002). The Path to Teacher Leadership in Educational Technology. Contemporary

Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, vol. 2, 2, pp. 178–203.

MARGARET TAPLIN ET AL.

NEW CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER EDUCATORS

In the last two decades, the promotion of life-long learning has become a major

theme in global educational reform. As Knowles (1988, in Boud 1988) points out, the

traditional emphasis in education in producing knowledgeable persons tends to give

way to a new vision about nurturing autonomous life-long learners. In order to

actualize this vision, higher education must focus on "the process of learning,

with the acquisition of content (rather than the transmission of content) being a nat-

ural (but not pre-programmed) result" (ibid., in Boud 1988, p. 5). Kwakman (2003,

p. 149) indicates that such a 'reform' trend requires teachers to create stimulating

learning environments and act as facilitators in students' learning processes. As the

21st century carries complex demands on teaching and learning, there emerges a

global discourse on how teachers can be supported to become professional learners,

and be prepared for the new roles as facilitators and co-learners (Kwo, 2002;

Cochran-Smith, 2003; Kwakman, 2003). In order to meet the complex demands of

preparing teachers for the 21st century, teacher educators are facing new challenges

and should become a central focus in the contexts of educational innovation.

However, as Cochran-Smith (2003) points out, little attention has been paid to

educating and supporting them. Just as most teachers feel isolated in their own struggles

to face new demands (Intrator, 2002; Huffman and Kalnin, 2003), teacher educators also

have similar problems.

In fact, traditional approaches for professional development, such as institution-based

training courses, academic conferences, individual study of academic journals and

books, are often inadequate in leading to effective outcomes and limited in provision of

sufficient places for the teachers in need. An alternative track for many teachers is to

engage in meaningful professional development where they can work with one another

collaboratively as a community (Little, 2002; Bullough and Kridel, 2003; Burbank and

Kauchak, 2003; Cochran-Smith, 2003; Huffman and Kalnin, 2003). Kwakman (2003)

explained the reasons for the call for collaboration as:

… feedback, new information or ideas do not only spring from individual

learning, but to a large extent also from dialogue and interaction with

539

DANJUN YING

37. TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE

INQUIRY IN A CONTEXT OF

EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION

IN CHINA – A CASE STUDY OF

RICH AS A LEARNING

COMMUNITY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 539–554.

540

other people. Moreover, collaboration is assumed to create a learning

culture and helps to build a community in which further learning is

supported and stimulated.

(Kwakman, 2003, p. 152)

She continues to summarize ways of professional learning into four categories: reading,

doing or experimenting, reflection, and collaboration (ibid.). If teachers are to be

prepared to respond to such a call for collaboration, it is instructive how teacher

educators can become ready for facilitating such professional learning.

BEING IN RICH, THE COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

As a teacher educator of eight-year experience at a university in China, I have

witnessed the isolation, the challenges of innovation, and the experience in the

community of practice since the very first day. I had to prepare students to be quali-

fied teachers while I myself was struggling to be a qualified teacher educator.

Sometimes I was desperate to share my problems, struggles and good ideas with

someone else. However, it seemed that collaboration was not the mainstream culture

in my college. In the 1990s, the government in China intended to promote quality-

oriented education, which also gave a big stir in the field of English language teaching.

Criticisms of English teaching, such as producing 'silent English' (i.e. the phenomenon

that students have been studying English for many years but are not able to commu-

nicate with others fluently and effectively), overemphasis on the result instead of the

process, were widely and quickly spreading all over the country. Changes to English

textbooks in middle schools that were based on communicative theories took place in

the early 1990s to respond to the criticism and call for teaching innovation. However

most teachers in middle schools ended up feeling challenged and stressed because

they were not professionally and conceptually ready for the new textbooks. Such

challenges and stresses also affected me because of the need to rethink how we could

educate teachers who would grow up with the new textbooks and be able to teach

them. There were no simple answers but many questions, and I was not the only

teacher who had these questions.

Following the shared interest, some of my colleagues and I initiated a bottom-up cur-

riculum innovation in 1997 in response to the national call for curriculum innovation and

quality-oriented education. We put away the textbooks that had been used for many years

and launched a task-based learning (TBL) project in the course of Comprehensive

Reading. The innovation was named RICH in 1998, an acronym for Research-based

learning, Integrated curriculum, Cooperative learning, and Humanistic outcomes. The

aim of RICH was to help students to become autonomous life-long learners with critical

thinking, open-mindedness, creativity, and sense of responsibility. For the teacher

educators involved in this innovation, changes in practice extended to content, method-

ology, evaluation, as grounded in conceptual development of teaching and learning.

However, the journey of the curriculum innovation has brought us more challenges,

stresses and struggles than expected, for example, the change of teachers'roles in and

DANJUN YING

outside the classroom, the unavailability of the resources, and the conflicts with

the mainstreams of learning and teaching in the college. Allwright (2002) sug-

gests that classroom language teaching and learning is essentially an interpersonal

social matter and therefore both teachers and learners need 'social expertise' to

help them to achieve a 'quality of life'in the classroom, which can be best pursued

by working to understand that life, not by treating it as a series of 'technical'

problems to be solved one at a time by purely technical pedagogic solutions (e.g.

better teaching material). RICH, therefore, enables its participants to bring up

their own motivation, reflection, and develop social expertise, generate local

knowledge, theorize their practice, interpret and interrogate the theory and obtain

their understandings towards the innovation, learning and teaching, and their own

professional development.

As a key member who got involved in RICH at the very beginning, I benefited a

lot from 'being-in-RICH', such as expanding my vision and changing conceptions of

teaching and learning, becoming more confident, supporting and being supported

mutually, and developing teacher knowledge. The term of 'being-in-RICH' is

borrowed from Heidegger's 'being-in-the-world' indicating 'a sense of involvement

rather than mere physical presence' (Donnelly, 1999, p. 935) and used to reflect the

interdependence of teacher educators and the community of RICH in which they

exist. However, the understandings of RICH as a learning community for teacher

educators still remain unexplored, for example, the development and functions of

RICH that sustain and / or constrain teacher educators' learning, the relationship

between teacher educators' learning and the community of RICH. Although such

understandings may be of local relevance only and so directly of use only to the

people who can 'live'their understandings (Allwright, 2002, p. 2), it is still worth trying

to obtain the understandings of RICH due to the fact that we may get better at

'expressing (if only partially) the ultimately inexpressible' as Allwright (2002, p. 2)

suggests that we may not be able to put all our understandings into words. Therefore,

it is meaningful to explore how RICH can help teacher educators to break the isolation

and facilitate their professional learning to develop their knowledge for / in / of prac-

tice (Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 1999), and how teacher educators' 'being-in-RICH'

help them to achieve their understandings. Freeman (1996, p. 89) suggests that we

have to know the story in order to tell the story. To be able to tell the stories of RICH,

I intend to explore RICH as a learning community for teacher educators in the light

of the relevant theoretical framework.

KNOWLEDGE BUILDING IN A COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE

Perspectives of a community of practice

Wenger et al. (2002, p. 4) define a community of practice as a group of people 'who

share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their

knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis'and suggest

that it should be a practical way to manage knowledge as an asset. Though there are

different interpretations of the nature of knowledge, Wells (1999) suggests that the

541

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

542

main concern should be with 'knowing'and 'coming to know'rather than knowledge.

He expands Vygotsky's social constructivist theory and proposes a model of the spiral

of knowing as a way of thinking about the relationship between experience, information,

and understanding, in which collaborative knowledge building plays a central role

through dialogic inquiry in a collaborative community (ibid.). Wenger (1998, p. 72)

describes three dimensions of a community of practice as mutual engagement, a joint

enterprise and a shared repertoire (see Figure 37.1).

She (ibid., p. 85) further describes the community of practice as 'a locus of

engagement in action, interpersonal relations, shared knowledge, and negotiation of

enterprises', which holds the key to real transformation effecting on people's lives.

She (ibid., p. 214) points out that a community of practice will become a learning

community when it is a privileged locus both for the acquisition of knowledge (i.e. to

give newcomers access to competence and also invite a personal experience of

engagement) and the creation of knowledge (i.e. to explore radically new insights ).

Thus, teacher educators' knowledge for/in/of practice will be connected and cat-

alyzed in such a locus as Lave and Wenger (1991, p. 100) declare that 'the place of

knowledge is within a community of practice'.

Collaborative inquiry as way of knowing

It is necessary to note that a community of practice is not intrinsically beneficial or

harmful (Wenger, 1998, p. 85). To facilitate professional teacher learning in the com-

munity of practice, Kwo (2002, p. 2) argues that teachers should 're-equip themselves

for inquiry in a collaborative culture'. Cochran-Smith (2003, p. 7) also suggests

… the education of teacher educators in different contexts and at differ-

ent entry points over the course of the professional career is substantially

enriched when inquiry is regarded as a stance on the overall enterprise

DANJUN YING

Figure 37.1. Dimensions of practice as the property of a community (Wenger, 1998: 73)

stories, styles,

artifacts, actions,

tools, historical

events, discourse,

concepts

engaged diversity, doing

things together, relationships,

social complexity,

community maintenances

Mutual

engagement Shared repertoire

negotiated enterprise, mutual

accountability,

interpretations, Rhythms,

localresponses

Joint enterprise

of teacher education and when teacher educators inquire collaboratively

about assumptions and values, professional knowledge and practice, the

contexts of schools as well as higher education, and their own as well as

their students' learning.

(Cochran-Smith 2003, p. 7)

The term 'inquiry as stance' is used to describe 'the positions teachers and others

who work together in inquiry communities take toward knowledge and its relation-

ships to practice' (Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 1999, p. 289). Therefore, to take an

inquiry stance is for teachers to work in an inquiry community to generate local

knowledge, envision and theorize their practice, and interpret and interrogate the

theory and research of others (ibid.). They continued to argue that such inquiry is

both social and political since it involves 'making problematic the current arrange-

ments of schooling; the ways knowledge is constructed, evaluated, and used; and

teachers' individual and collective roles in bringing about change' (ibid.). The pro-

fessional literature and conferences reveal various forms of practitioner inquiry

including 'teacher research', 'action research', 'autobiographical inquiry', 'self

study', 'reflexive inquiry' (summarized in Cochran-Smith, 2003, p. 8). These

researches indicate the emergence of new terminology and contexts and reconceptu-

alization of the role of teacher educator and a valuable way to think about the ongo-

ing education of teacher educators (ibid., p. 9). Such collaborative efforts of inquiry

have been proved to be powerful tools and strongly support teachers in 'building

contextualized knowledge of their students and community' (Huffman and Kalnin,

2003, p. 570), and promote learning and teaching for understanding (Hargreaves and

Fink, 2000 and McLaughlin, 1997).

Narrative inquiry as way of understanding

Wenger (1998, p.134) argues that a community of practice is about knowing, but

also 'about being together, living meaningfully, developing a satisfying identity,

and altogether being human', which has granted the role of narrative inquiry in it.

Connelly et al. (1997) believe that teacher knowledge is not something objective and

independent to be learned and transmitted but is the sum total of the teacher's expe-

riences and thus we all live inside stories. Teacher educators' knowledge in RICH are

also being and living in stories. Stories of RICH, i.e. the stories that teachers are

expected to live and tell about RICH, and RICH stories, i.e. the stories teachers per-

sonally tell about RICH, are vital, which interplay dynamically on teachers'profes-

sional knowledge landscapes (Connelly et al .,1997, p. 674). Craig (2003, p.817) claims

that the narrative authority of teacher knowledge explains "how teachers develop

their knowledge transactionally" and provides "justification for teachers telling and

writing stories of their reform experiences, the narrative view of teacher knowledge".

The narrative-based collaborative inquiry in the culture of community will then enable

teachers to develop and express the narrative authority of their personal practical

knowledge in the company of other knowers through negotiating the meaning of their

experiences and making their personal meaning public and shared (ibid.). Johnson

543

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

544

and Golombek (2002, in Johnson, 2003, p. 790) further explain the significance of

narrative inquiry:

We believe narrative inquiry, conducted by teachers individually or col-

laboratively, tells the stories of teachers' professional development

within their own professional worlds. Such inquiry is driven by teachers'

inner desire to understand that experience, to reconcile what is known

with that which is hidden, to confirm and affirm, and to construct and

reconstruct understanding of themselves as teachers and of their own

teaching.

(Johnson and Golombek, 2002, in Johnson, 2003, p. 790)

In this sense, narrative inquiry is both the subject and approach for being, knowing

and understanding in RICH.

AN EPISODE IN A RICH SEMINAR

On January 17, a seminar called "Retelling the stories of RICH" was organized.

When I put up the poster in the notice area in the college two days before the seminar,

I was sure it would not draw a big crowd, although the seminars organized by RICH

were open to teachers and even students in our college who had an interest in the topics.

January 17 was the last day of the term and only two weeks from Spring Festival. But

I was also sure that the key members of RICH (i.e. Huang, Zheng, Hu, Ying, Wu)

would be there. Wu had just returned from England after 3 years of doctoral study.

Not only did we learn a lot of new terms and ideas from Dr Wu, such as reflection,

identity, and narrative inquiry, we were also invited to work with him to teach his new

course, called Curriculum and Language Teacher Development, in the following

semester. We took this as a chance to learn from him and to challenge ourselves.

Some seminars had been held to design that course, for example, on January 2nd, a

seminar was held to discuss 'what is teacher development' and another one dealt with

proposals for curriculum design on January 11th . In addition, many discussions

occurred informally concerning the course and RICH.

Discussion about Hu's proposal

At 1pm in the afternoon, Zheng hadn't arrived yet. Hu didn't discuss her proposal in

the previous seminar on January 11th . She printed her proposal and gave copies to

those present this time. In addition to four RICH members, three other teachers

came, i.e. Yumei, Jiang and He. Huang as the head of RICH initiated the actual start

of the seminar:

It's sunny today. We're in the RICH office. We're going to retell stories of

RICH. Let's begin. Have a look at Hu's proposal.

However, the conversation was interrupted by digression about the mobile phones

given by the college as an extra bonus at the end of this term and a visitor to the

office. I was sitting beside Hu and had a discussion with her about her proposal.

DANJUN YING

Wu joined in by asking how to translate the word 'reflection' into Chinese. Others

contributed to the discussion from different perspectives.

More than half an hour later, Wu asked Zheng to tell a story, about 5 or 10 minutes

in length, saying that any story would be OK. In effect, Wu's invitation to Zheng to

tell a story not only brought the interaction back to the theme of the seminar but also

opened up the opportunity for professional learning for everyone present.

Zheng's told story

In response to Wu's invitation, Zheng told the following story:

I used to teach Extensive Reading. In 1997, I saw RICH was conducted

in many classes. I then decided to observe some classes. At that time, one

class left a deep impression on me. In Class 963, Yan made a presentation

on the topic of 'Unemployment'. She found a lot of the latest statistical

information and introduced it in class. I was listening. My feeling was

like, wow I could learn about so much information while observation. In

addition, it was presented in English. Suddenly, I felt that this was the

right way to learn language. This was the most natural studying method.

It seemed that I suddenly saw the light. This method was great! I changed

my opinions. Later I decided to teach Intensive Reading. Extensive

Reading is too limiting. They were using this method in Intensive

Reading, if I did the same thing, there would be too much of a burden on

students. I should change my teaching subject. Since then I had this idea.

It was so impressive that I could still remember it now. This was one

story. There was another …

It seemed as if Zheng was inspired after telling one story and had more to tell. But

Wu interrupted and asked her if it was possible to write down this story. He asked if

Zheng could try to recall it with as many details as possible, such as the students'

small movements, a sound, a sound of footsteps, anything that once impressed her,

the kinds of details which were crucial to help her change suddenly.

Hu's lived story

At that moment, Hu stood up and took out her own recorder and started to record

seminar. Wu noted this and made a comment:

Why are there three recorders here suddenly? Three! Oh?

He then asked Hu:

Now I ask you, why did you suddenly want to take out the recorder?

Wu continued to ask questions and make comments as well to explore why Hu started

to record after Zheng's story and what happened at that moment. Hu responded with

various points. Thus, reflection-on-action naturally occurred. Hu's action of recording

and the following interaction became a lived story of reflection and a sample of

narrative inquiry, which the participants had just heard about.

545

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

546

Closing down

While Wu was questioning Hu about why she started to record at that moment, other

participants got involved in the whole process of inquiry. Zheng tried to close down

the discussion, but she actually brought in her relevant story:

I found that on many occasions when I was talking with others, for example,

after our meeting that day, May went to my home and we kept talking all

the time. Then, I suddenly realized that we should record the conversation.

I found my recorder immediately and recorded the rest of our conversation.

That evening, we also continued our conversation on phone. I found

many times I had the awareness of recording the conversation.

Inspired by Zheng's story, Huang also told her story:

Oh, yeah, recording. After meeting that day, we three people walked

together on our way back home. Wow! The conversation that we had was

great. I was so regretful. How wonderful if I had recorded it! …

After discussing reflection, engaging in some story telling and discussing the writing

of narratives, Wu asked others present to tell stories. Thus, this episode ended.

FEATURES OF COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

IN THE RICH COMMUNITY

Narratives as a way of constructing knowledge

It was no surprise that the January 17 seminar was full of stories since the topic was

to tell stories about RICH. The surprise was the power of the stories and how it could

help teachers to deepen their understanding.

At the beginning of the episode, although everyone tried their best to understand

what reflection was and how to put it in the course, the result was not effective

enough to make Hu take out her recorder. However, after Zheng told a story, she

stood up, took out the recorder and started to record even though three recorders

were already on. Olson and Craig (2001, p. 668) believe that "teachers authentically

share their stories of practice in safe places, i.e. knowledge communities, in order to

make their personal practical knowledge explicit to themselves and to others". Zheng

was trying to make her personal practical knowledge explicit to herself through

telling a story, and at the same time she made it explicit to Hu as well, or Hu would not

have taken out the recorder. In this case, Zheng's story was told while Hu's story (i.e.

suddenly starting to record) was lived. Both stories, told or lived, express their personal

practical knowledge of their experiences to themselves and to others.

The power of Zheng's story could not occur without the inquiry concerning it.

Following her told story, Wu inquired about how to write the story down, and after

Hu's lived story, the participants were all involved in this collaborative inquiry. We

found 5 out of 8 participants made contributions. Although the other three did not say

anything, they were also thinking about this story according to my observations.

DANJUN YING

Inspired by the discussion about why Hu started to record at that moment, Zheng told

another story concerned with recording dialogues. Then Huang told a similar story.

However, Wu continued to inquire about what a story should be by comparing Hu's

lived story with Zheng's and Huang's told stories. It seems that inquiry played a

crucial role in making sense of the narratives. While teachers expressed their personal

practical knowledge through told and lived stories, they both shape their own knowl-

edge and are shaped by the knowledge of others (Olson and Craig, 2001, p. 670).

Collaborative Reflection as way of understanding

Although reflection could be done individually and collaboratively, the episode has

revealed the significance and power of collaborative reflection mainly in two ways.

First, collaborative reflection brought forth engaged a significant diversity of

perspectives in a short time, which seems not to be easily achieved by reflecting indi-

vidually. In this episode, when Hu's proposal was discussed, different participants

engaged in the collaborative inquiry with various perspectives for the first half an

hour of the seminar (See Figure 37.2). In addition, they only got the proposal at the

beginning of the seminar. Participants brought in different issues, negotiated,

responded and interpreted, which created many opportunities for their professional

learning.

Second, collaborative reflection led to more profound understandings. In the

episode, the half-hour inquiry on Hu's proposal not only engaged in a diversity of

547

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

People Content

Wu 1) Translation of 'reflection'

2) Film Dead Poet Society

3) Schon' book

4) Reading for this topic

5) Data/story

6) Research on this topic home and abroad

7) Language & thinking

8) Experience of teaching Chinese in UK

Ying 1) Subjects and research method in

Hu's proposal

2) Schon's paper

3) Awareness of reflection

4) Translation of 'narrative inquiry'

Huang 1) Teachers' experience

2) Change of teachers'roles

3) Story of dining with students so as to reflect

with them

Hu 1) Theory of reflection

2) Teaching plan

3) Reflective teacher & teaching

4) Language teaching & language education

Figure 37.2. Different content involved in Hu's proposal discussion

548

perspectives, but also made the occurrence of Hu's lived story possible. At the end of

that discussion, Wu suggested:

If, in your proposal, if you could show something, not in terms of

theories, maybe a paragraph, a transcription, a diary, which is very

authentic, you think about it, and then discuss it. It could be better. … It

is very difficult to express clearly what reflection is, because it is in

action. How could you use language to express clearly something in

action? But language obviously could help you move towards it, and the

same with theories. The importance is that you should know which

direction you are moving towards. If you don't know that, how could you

let others know it? All that you can do is only to talk about the theories.

So I think stories and other forms are very important because these

forms could catch the key points, not necessarily in terms of theories.

Maybe a story could help you understand what is reflection, but theories

may not be able to express it clearly.

Hu responded:

You mean that when you are discussing a story or looking at it, what you

know is refection itself. It is not necessary for others to explain what

reflection is.

Hu started to realize the importance of stories and achieved a better understanding of

reflection and her teaching proposal. When Zheng told her story, the understanding

gained here made her take out the recorder. Thus, the lived story happened.

When Hu suddenly took out her recorder, Wu kept asking her why she did so again

and again. From Turn 6 to Turn 40, Wu took 18 turns, among which he asked ques-

tions 12 times with 10 of them being pretty similar: why did Hu take out her recorder

after Zheng told her story? Hu's responses to Wu's similar questions varied from time

to time and became more and more profound (see Figure 37.3). From Turn 6 to Turn 13,

Hu's reflection was very superficial. When Wu asked a similar question for the fourth

time, she mentioned the usefulness of Zheng's story. While the process of collabora-

tive inquiry was moving on, her reflection became much more profound when she

DANJUN YING

Turns Response

6–11 Lazy

Inconvenient to borrow tapes from Huang

14–22 Thought Zheng's story might be useful in class next term

23–28 Doubted the efficiency of the meeting

Not in the right mood

29–32 Unfinished assignments

Family commitment

Struggling with time

Figure 37.3. Hu's responses to Wu's questions marked with turns

told a 'sacred story' and a 'cover story' (Crites, 1971, 1979, cited in Olson and Craig

2001, p. 669) in her responses (see Figure 37.3).

Turn

6Wu: Now I ask you, why did you suddenly want to take out the recorder?

7Hu: Hei hei hei, because I'am lazy.

8Wu: There already are so many. Three recorders are on.

9Hu: Because I thought it would be inconvenient to borrow the tapes from

Huang to copy. I thought it'd be better for me to do it myself. Maybe she'd

use them herself. Then it is also difficult to find her.

10 Wu: But why not think of this at the beginning?

11 Hu: First, I thought I could borrow the tapes from Huang.

(From the tape transription)

From Turn 6 to 11, Hu reflected on her action of recording due to her laziness and

inconvenience of borrowing the tape.

14 Wu: Why did you take it out after Zheng finished talking?

15 Hu: Because I thought I might use her story. So I'd better record it myself.

16 Wu: Do you now know how to reflect?

17 Hu: Eh, I have a kind of sense, but I can't name it.

18 Wu: Do you know now? What she said is much more useful than what we have

discussed for such a long time. [Hu laughs.]

19 Wu : Can you see the power of a story?Ah?Ah?We talked so much at the begin-

ning, why didn't you record it? I am inspiring you. She said so little and

there wasn't much to it, but you wanted to record it. I ask you, why

record?

20 Hu: This is reflection.

21 Wu: What touched you? I am right now teaching on the spot.

22 Hu: The reason is mainly because I thought I might use Zheng's story in class

next term.

(From the tape transription)

From Turn 14 to 22, Hu thought that Zheng's story might be useful next term. Then

she further reflected that she doubted the efficiency of the meeting and was not in the

right mood.

23 Wu: We agreed to tell stories today, so why didn't you start recording from the

very beginning? You didn't start the machine.

24 Hu: I doubted the efficiency of the meeting at the beginning. I thought it would

be like the meetings before, some material. I was not in the right mood.

25 Wu: Then why suddenly record?

26 Hu: Because it is useful.

27 Wu: This is the same as what Zheng said. What she saw that day, in Yu's class. Her

feeling of it is the same as your feeling now, though at different levels, aspects

and angles. Here, something profound is added, i.e. reflective action is

549

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

550

happening now. What is happened here? I just want to know why you suddenly

decided to record? Three recorders are on, and yet, you still want to take out

another one. [Zheng laughs.]

28 Hu: Because it just dawned on me that it would be inconvenient to find them

and borrow tapes.

(From the tape transription)

She finally revealed her struggles as follows:

29 Wu: Inconvenient, but you should set it up at the very beginning. Did it when

you came in. Now what I want to know is why only after Zheng told her

story, you suddenly …

30 Hu: Because, at first I didn't really intended to tell stories today. Because I

didn't have enough time to finish my stuff. I didn't want to come, so I had-

n't thought about recording at all. I was in such mood just now. I didn't

want to come, because I didn't have enough time to do those things. I

haven't handed in my assignments. Then I have to prepare for returning

home to meet my child. I have to arrive at home on the 21st , because we

have things to do on the 22nd . Like this. Eh, shall I go to the seminar? I'd

forget about it. Than after I arrived here, it seems that I haven't been in

the mood. Then, when Zheng told her story, I suddenly realized that I

might use it and it would be inconvenient to find Huang to copy the tapes,

difficult to meet, then …

31 Wu: Since it is useful, why didn't you even want to come at the beginning?

How did you suddenly realize you would use it?

32 Hu: Because I want to finish my tasks first. My tasks haven't been finished, so

I didn't want to come today. There's convention.

(From the tape transription)

The above collaborative inquiry process could be summarized in the Figure 37.3.

This process of collaborative inquiry into Hu's lived story in the seminar not only

made the practice in the community transparent and participants' personal practical

knowledge explicit in the presence of others'(Olson and Craig, 2001, p. 671), it also

revealed the tensions involved in the social transactions taking place on Hu's profes-

sional knowledge landscape.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE INQUIRY PROCESS IN RICH

Wenger's (1998, p. 72) dimensions of a community of practice, i.e. mutual engage-

ment, a joint enterprise and a shared repertoire (see Figure 37.1) provide guidance to

understand the factors that influence the inquiry process. To be specific, factors are

presented in Figure 37.4.

Common interests of the participants motivated them to attend the seminar even on

the last day of the term. Working together for more than 7 years, trusting relationships

were built to provide a safe environment, which enabled participants to tell their sto-

ries authentically and make their personal practical knowledge explicit in the presence

DANJUN YING

of others. Shared experience was another crucial factor. In the episode, Zheng's told

story trigged Hu's lived story, and Hu's lived story inspired Zheng's other story and

Huang's story. There were many more stories told later in the seminar. The five key

members of RICH also contributed a lot of comments and questions while the other

three participants seldom did so. All above were partly due to their shared experience

involving the curriculum innovation of RICH. Institutional and personal constraints

will also affect the process of collaborative inquiry. For example, Hu's reluctance in

joining the seminar and the fact that she was not in the mood for discussion were

caused by institutional and personal constraints.

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING IN THE RICH COMMUNITY

Knowledge building and understanding in the community of practice

To facilitate teacher's professional learning, the process of collaborative inquiry pro-

vided various opportunities for knowledge building. Wells (1999, p.84) describes

knowledge building as a process in which 'the individual is engaged in meaning

making with others in an attempt to extend and transform their collective under-

standing with respect to some aspect of a jointly undertaken activity'. The ultimate

goal of professional learning is to obtain understanding. Wells (1999, p. 85) takes

551

TEACHER EDUCATORS' COLLABORATIVE INQUIRY

Figure 37.4. Factors that influence the process of collaborative inquiry

Shared

experiences

Institutional

constraints

Personal

constraints

Trusting

relation-

ships

Common

interests

Collaborative

inquiry

552

understanding as 'the culminating moment in a cycle of knowing'. He suggests that

understanding requires that 'meaning should be made explicit; understanding is

typically more holistic and intuitive'(ibid., p. 84).

The above episode reveals a unique way of professional learning, i.e. the narrative

version of knowledge building and understanding. As Clandinin and Connelly (1998)

point out, 'Knowledge as attribute can be given; knowledge as narrative cannot. The

latter needs to be experienced in context'. Instead of learning from academic papers

and books, Hu's lived story in the seminar and the collaborative inquiry concerning it

opened up opportunities for all participants to understand what is 'reflection-on-action'

(Schon, 1987) and what is the significance of narrative inquiry, which also made

'their practices transparent and their personal practical knowledge explicit in the

presence of others' (Olson and Craig, 2001, p. 671). Hu's taking out her recorder is

'the culminating moment in a cycle of knowing' (Wells, 1999, p.85). She made her

personal practical knowledge explicit to herself and others, which was the same with

Zheng's told story. In addition, the follow-up interview revealed some participants

thought that Wu's way of asking questions was very impressive and demonstrated a

good way of interviewing, which they could not learn and understand from papers

and books.

Creating a shared language culture in RICH

In this episode, teachers' professional learning not only features the narrative version

of knowledge building and understanding, but also features community learning.

RICH, as the community of practice, is a safe and story-telling place where teachers

narrate the rawness of their experiences, such as Zheng' told story, negotiate meaning

for such experiences, such as reflecting on Hu's lived story, and authorize one's own

and other's narrative interpretations of situations (Olson and Craig, 2001, p. 670).

Figures 37.2 and 37.3 demonstrate that the RICH community supports shifts in

dynamic perspectives that would be impossible to achieve solely through individual

reflection and is a place 'where tensions are revealed and where insights are offered

that enable situations to be revisited, reassessed, and restoried' (Olson and Craig,

2001, p. 671). In short, the existence of the community of RICH made the collaborative

inquiry possible, profound and meaningful.

On the other hand, the process of collaborative inquiry provided a safe environment,

shared resources and trusting relationships and thus helped to create a unique language

and culture in RICH. As Wilson and Berne (1999, quoted in Little 2002, p. 918) put

it, professional community constitutes a resource for teacher learning and innovations

in teaching practice by its specific interactions and dynamics. In this case, all those

told and lived stories became shared resources for the community. To refer back to

Wenger's dimensions of a community of practice (see Figure 37.1), the joint enterprise

of RICH, the mutual engagement in the process of collaborative inquiry, and the

shared repertoire of all told and lived stories in the seminar created a shared language

and shaped the unique culture of RICH, which strongly support teachers'professional

learning.

DANJUN YING

CONCLUSION

In short, this study examines the process of collaborative inquiry in the RICH commu-

nity to explore how collaborative inquiry helps to facilitate teachers' professional

learning in the community and to make personal practical knowledge explicit, by

studying the records of situated interaction among teachers in a seminar organized by

RICH. Narratives as a way of constructing knowledge and collaborative reflection

are essential features of this collaborative inquiry, which make the collaborative

inquiry possible, profound and meaningful. Factors that influence the process are

also discussed briefly. Moreover, collaborative inquiry not only plays a significant

role in the process of building knowledge and understanding for teachers'professional

learning, but also helps the community to develop its own language and culture

through sharing and reflection.

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DANJUN YING

SECTION SIX

THE REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONER:

THE WAY FORWARD

It is quite amazing how a piece of writing is never really finished, how the most carefully

crafted and thoughtful essay has obvious gaps and weaknesses when returned to at a

later stage. Readers of an academic manuscript may expect more than text that masks

an underlying uncertainty. Even so, I find myself wanting to increasingly express my

discursive and incomplete thinking as I range across difficult issues in teacher

education, encompassing as they do the full gamut of philosophical, epistemological

and political problems that society creates.

As I sit back and view the sunset, I am now comfortable with the notion that the

best we can do is work through difficult issues with others in cycles of investigation

and reflection and attempt to enhance our mutual understanding if we can. It is frus-

trating to try to find the appropriate words to describe the process and the position

reached, while at the same time realising that whatever the choice, the reader must

interpret an understanding that is inadequately expressed. Even the esteemed Oxford

mathematician Roger Penrose in his latest work (Penrose, 2004, p. 1028) has cast

doubt on the quest within physics for a 'theory of everything' and whether it is

possible 'to find 'reality' within the Platonic world of mathematical ideals.' If math-

ematics cannot provide the certainty we seek for explanation and guidance, then my

meanderings will never reach a conclusion.

My intention below is to sketch some of these meanderings, the educational and

cultural questions that have dominated my life for many years and which I have

struggled to resolve. I shall make some comment on research and knowledge and the

idea of narrative as a useful construct for personal change and understanding. My

thoughts have been strongly influenced over recent times by such matters within the

context of Australian Indigenous learning. There is no more difficult or important

question in Australian education, indeed within Australia itself and until such time as

reconciliation between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples is achieved, we

shall all be diminished. We need to seek anchor points within the recognised litera-

ture to enable this to occur within education and to provide models of learning that

are accessible to all regardless of biography. A critical relationship with knowledge

seems to me to be the key in allowing some intellectual purchase on this problem and

a willingness to think any thought, to scale any mountain that obstructs our path. But

to do so, we need to reach some type of consensus on knowledge itself, to agree on

what we are talking about, at least in the short term.

A philosophical framework for thinking about knowledge production may con-

sider human ideas and understanding as emerging from empirical, hermeneutic, or

critical investigations. The first approach sees truth or trustworthiness residing in

557

NEIL HOOLEY

38. PARTICIPATION AND THE QUESTION OF

KNOWLEDGE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 557–570.

558

various forms of experiment and measurement, the second moves beyond mere

observation and requires human interpretation of whatever data is at hand and the

third, application of a world view that examines personal bias and prejudice, power

relations and social purpose. The shift from a more positivist to a more emancipatory

frame of knowledge has been an ongoing process throughout the Enlightenment

period and is found across the academic disciplines to greater or lesser extents. To

this we might add the notion of participatory research that sees understanding arising

from communities of learning and research which have an explicit socio-cultural

perspective and which engage in the robust contestation of ideas, principles and

values as reflective cycles of investigation unfold.

Under these circumstances of critical perspective and participation, knowledge pro-

duction is non-neutral and generalisable but must always be refined and validated

through practice and participation. Experience within an Australian Bachelor of

Education program for example and some informal reflections reported below indi-

cates that at least to some extent, a critical participation can form the basis of both

teaching and research where staff and students constantly undertake knowledge pro-

duction and critique over extended periods of time. A central aspect of participatory

research is the written documentation of experience and reflection on how the

research process itself challenges personal ideas and practice. In this way, research

outcomes involve not only new personal knowledge but changes to the researchers

themselves which, in the end, is the basis of enduring change. For the author, the draft-

ing of the following reflections on naturalistic methodology as 'understanding in

progress' has been another step in that journey.

THINKING ABOUT TEACHING AND RESEARCH

Research as an investigation into knowledge and undertaken from a critical point of

view will begin with the question, what is the point of conducting this research if the

researchers remain unchanged by the experience? That is, have the researchers learnt

nothing about themselves and hold exactly the same views and understandings as

they did at the beginning of the project? How will this make for a better world, how

will the status quo be altered? Of course, learning, outcomes, or findings are relative

terms and can be seen as technical and constraining or critical and liberating. It may

be that the work itself is purely or mainly empirical, has scope for interpretation, or

can establish a framework of practice and reflection that is deeply challenging of per-

sonal values and beliefs. This is the classic contradiction of modern science where

research can be conducted for its own sake regardless of the purposes to which the

new knowledge can be put. Research of this type is seen as disconnected from our

prejudice, bias and irrationality. But research of this type is also a fantasy.

In discussing a reconceptualisation of knowledge within a context of modern and

postmodern critiques of curriculum for instance, Moore and Young (2001, p. 459)

conclude with a description of knowledge as the 'historically located collective

achievement of human creativity.' While positioning knowledge as an artefact of

social action, this concept leaves open the process by which such an achievement

NEIL HOOLEY

actually takes place. For example, two epistemological frameworks are possible

when considering how humans go about creating or discovering new knowledge

(Chalmers, 1996; Edelman and Tononi, 2000). Both are models to assist our

understanding of the human condition at this time. In the first approach, a mind-body

duality exists where the mind is separate from both body and brain and there is an

absolute distinction between material and mental processes. A second view suggests

that mind emerges from the physical properties of matter as encountered in the body,

particularly as a certain threshold of complexity is exceeded and new properties such

as consciousness are formed. In a broader sense, both models draw sharp distinctions

between a theological and scientific explanation of the universe. If mind is

'supra-material' then it owes allegiance to a superior being, whereas if mind is mere

matter its existence is simply another feature of the universe and not extraordinary in

any way. On this latter basis, the vast reaches of the universe could quite easily be

characterised by life and consciousness.

The complexity model (Johnson, 2001) needs to be able to show or at least hypoth-

esise how ideas, values, emotions and morality can arise from matter. This is an

extremely difficult task for both philosophy and science. It will involve theorised

connections between experience and nature, between action and thought and between

feedback, reflection and communication. Such investigations will draw upon the

insights of information theory and cybernetics, neurobiology, cosmology and philoso-

phy. An important component of this idea of 'emergence' is a possible explanation of

human consciousness, that is how humans are aware of their own histories. This proj-

ect is sometimes referred to as the 'hard problem' of philosophy (Chalmers, 2002,

p. 92) and perhaps the last on which consensus may be reached. For researchers and

educators it may be possible to design programs based on certain perspectives of each

model without resolving each particular detail. What is important here is that each

model is not ignored and that the framework guiding human action of whatever kind is

acknowledged, evaluated and changed as human activity and interaction proceeds.

As well as consciousness, proponents of either model must confront questions of

neutrality, subjectivity, objectivity and validation and indeed reach agreement on the

philosophical baseline before the actual work of projects unfold (Anderson and Herr,

1998; Coulter, 2002; Eisner, 2002). If thought and perspective arise from material and

the experience of material occurs in both nature and society, then all ideas develop

within a socio-cultural context and cannot be neutral. As humans make decisions and

judgements on all experience the results of which ultimately find their way to the brain

in the form of electrical impulses, then it follows that the connections between action,

experience, nature, society cannot be severed, one is always a part of the other. Rather

than an independent mind fashioning human cognition in a manner disconnected from

experience, the human organism comes to know through not only connecting with

experience, but becoming experience. Rather than the abyss, a movement between

subjectivity and objectivity occurs where the knowing subject attempts to establish a

relationship with the object to be known with understanding being a function of move-

ment between the two. Knowledge is true when humans agree that it is true at least

until new experience casts doubt on the outcomes of action.

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560

Educational research is generally not conducted from an acknowledged and defensible

philosophical position. According to St Pierre (2002, p. 26), 'Much educational

research, in fact, does not even acknowledge its epistemological grounding, much

less take into account the limits of that epistemology and its methodology, in the pro-

duction of knowledge'. Issues regarding methodology as distinct from method can be

assumed. For research in the social sciences particularly when working with local

communities where democratic and respectful arrangements are crucial, where the

knowledge, wisdom and understandings of groups of people constitute the basis of

the research, ignoring such matters will mean that the direction of the research will

be poorly defined, problems are more difficult to resolve and interpretations become

more disruptive than cohesive.

VIEWING KNOWLEDGE WITH A CRITICAL LENS

The notion of being critical and of developing critique has a long history in both the

social and physical fields throughout the modern era (Young, 1990). It has in fact

been an important characteristic of the modern era. Galileo, Kepler and Copernicus

dared to think about the place of the Earth in the universe against the established wisdom

of the church. Marx, Darwin and Freud put forward revolutionary ideas about the

human condition. The pragmatic philosophers placed emphasis on practice, enquiry

and the individual interest. Bohr challenged Einstein and Newton in regards quantum

mechanics, theorists of the Frankfurt School developed a cultural criticism of capi-

talism, Freire took up the issue of illiteracy and exploitation of the Brazilian peasants.

More recently, the postmodern view has identified a range of social features for

ideology critique. Researchers always have a very clear choice therefore of seeing

their work as being subservient to or being critical of the current socio-economic and

scientific paradigm. They do not have a choice of their work being neutral.

A critical theorist is interested in both theory and practice, indeed the theorising of

practice and may see each as being the same as the other, that is all phenomena are

constituted by a practice/theory unity or dialectic. The research task is to consider the

theory that guides practice and the practice that informs theory, to untangle the ideas

that are behind every act so that substantial change and improvement are possible. It

also means that the participants in the research process must also consider the impact

that the research has on them, their views and predilections. As Shacklock and Smyth

(1998, p. 4) suggest, 'The intent is to engage in a constant questioning and building

up of theory and interpretations through repeated ongoing analysis until a coherent

alternative reconstruction of the account is created.' The notion of conversation

between ideas and data is important here. If research and knowledge are not neutral

but arise from the ideological determinants of society then a dialectical process will

also exist between the socio-political views of participants and the emergent under-

standings. These issues need to be built into the research design, to ensure that

personal, political and epistemological perspectives are known so that their influence

on the research as it unfolds can be dealt with as necessary. The changes that

researchers themselves undergo should be explicitly discussed throughout the project

NEIL HOOLEY

particularly as they impact on the observations, interpretations, analyses and

hypotheses as they occur.

For research to take up emancipatory interest, it must be undertaken by groups of

researchers rather than individuals, involve explicit linkages with major social and

political events, contain the services of a critical friend for advice and experience that

the group may not have and expressly locate itself within the critical tradition as men-

tioned above. This means the full democratic participation of all participants as

equals with open discussions regarding ideological positions from the beginning of

the project. Tricoglus (2001) takes up similar issues in discussing a tentative protocol

for a practitioner critical ethnography and identifies issues such as establishing the

purpose and theoretical basis of research, knowing the worldview and context of

participants, knowing the data and yourself. In summary, participation is quite a different

concept to that of collaboration and needs to include the following features:

●research and knowledge seen as historical and ideological

●context of research dependent on socio-economic and cultural conditions

●research groups seek to transform reality and basis of oppression

●draws upon the explicit understandings and experiences of participants

●unity of practice and theory, ideas and action, method of social praxis

●new knowledge emerges from reflection on broad experiential base

●connects with other social groupings and colleagues for advice, challenge

●validity of knowledge arises from application, communication, negotiation

●transforms consciousness from technical to critical

●lifelong perspective, involving shorter and longer cycles of investigation.

BOURDIEU AND THE FIELD OF

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

The above discussion reminds us of the work of the French sociologist Pierre

Bourdieu, his notions of field and habitus and particularly the relation between them.

He describes the 'proper object of social science' (Bourdieu, and Wacquant, 1992,

pp. 126–127) as the 'relation between two realisations of historical action' in the

following terms:

It is the double and obscure relations between habitus ie the durable and transposable

systems of schemata of perception, appreciation and action that result from the insti-

tution of the social in the body (or in biological individuals) and fields ie systems of

objective relations which are the product of the institution of the social in things or in

mechanisms that have the quasi reality of physical objects; and of course, of everything

that is born of this relation, that is, social practices and representations, or fields as

they as they present themselves in the form of realities perceived and appreciated.

Bourdieu is clear that social science must direct its attention not to the individual

but to the field, its properties and positions, meaning that the focus of research proj-

ects is to identify, clarify, characterise those features that impact on social action and

which can therefore be changed to influence different outcomes. For educational

research, the field would comprise in part ideological approaches towards economic

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PARTICIPATION AND THE QUESTION OF KNOWLEDGE

562

and cultural development, conflict between philosophies of modernity and post

modernity, tensions between ontological and epistemological frames of knowledge

production, viewpoints of social class, gender, ethnicity. This is clearly complicated

work. An analysis of the field would consider the power relations that exist between

positions such as the status of research teams when competing for funding from

agencies, methodologies that are more qualitative or more quantitative, the question

of 'voice'amongst participants, national priorities that emphasise empirical rather than

interpretive outcomes. These are seen in relation to the habitus of researchers,

their backgrounds, perceptions, culture, worldview and morality, the range of capitals

that constitute their very existence.

The significance of Bourdieu's insights for educational research is that the

researchers are dislodged from their insulated capsules of neutrality and, regardless

of the specific interest of their projects, must confront the realities of interlocking

ideology, context and prejudice. These reside in the habitus and need to be exposed

for scrutiny as relations and essentials of the research process. Conceptualising

educational research as a field for social action, where the ideas and practices of

practitioners is a field of epistemological contestation and understanding for all par-

ticipants will shake dispositions, values, stereotypes to their very foundations.

INDIGENOUS KNOWING: THINKING ACROSS WORLDS

Ruminating on these types of ideas, that is, different approaches to knowledge and

learning, the place of participation and how human consciousness actually comes

into being for understanding, are central considerations for reconciliation between

the Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples of Australia. Following settlement of

Australia by the British in the 1770s and 80s, the overall health and well being of the

Indigenous population has steadily declined. The Indigenous people comprise

approximately two percent of the overall population and mainly live in cities and

towns down the east coast as do most other Australians. A small proportion live in

tiny Indigenous communities in remote areas of the country. With the large-scale dis-

possession of their traditional lands and the resultant destruction of customs and lan-

guages, the struggle of the Indigenous peoples has been to live within two worlds

while attempting to maintain their own culture and knowledge systems. In many

cases, this has proven to be an almost impossible task.

Of particular concern within Australia of course, is how to provide a curriculum in

regular schools that is inclusive of Indigenous ways of knowing. Primary schools are

better placed in this regard with their integrated approaches, but the segmented

nature of the secondary curriculum where knowledge is disconnected amongst itself

and from the broader society in which it is located, is a significant factor in the high

drop out rate that occurs. Contradictions that exist between the school organization

and curriculum and the way that children learn within their communities, become too

much to bear. Insufficient attention is given to Indigenous learning styles (Hughes

and Moore, 1997) and the notions of family, community, sharing and co-operation

that permeate Indigenous life around the world. Learning from the land and natural

NEIL HOOLEY

environment is another important principle that is overlooked, even though it provides

obvious linkages with western science and the school curriculum. Ma Rhea (2004,

p. 9) makes the telling point that the incorporation of empirical Indigenous knowledge

into western education 'raises the important question of what theoretical and

methodological approaches should be adopted' to ensure that such knowledge is

treated with respect and is not distorted or misrepresented. These are huge issues that

may not have been resolved by dominant settler societies in very many places around

the world.

In attempting to grapple with these matters, I have proposed the idea of 'two-way

enquiry learning' (Hooley, 2002) that brings together the general approach to inquiry

as advocated by Dewey (1963) and 'two-way learning' in the Australian Indigenous

context as suggested by Harris (1990). Participation is a key feature of this approach,

democratic participation by Indigenous people in their own education and direct

participation in the generation and refinement of knowledge over time. If this is to

occur, then new forms of curriculum need to be recognised that in fact challenge the

authority of existing structures in the way that knowledge is conceived and privi-

leged. Given the importance of oral, artistic and ritual communication in Indigenous

communities, these new curriculum forms will need to take due account of human

expression in all its forms, rather than the European insistence of writing only. This

also means that due respect and recognition for the Indigenous peoples of Australia

within regular schools and university programs through more open, democratic and

communicative mechanisms should improve the learning for all students whatever

their socio-cultural background.

CONSTRUCTING NARRATIVE AS RESEARCH

For researchers concerned with democratic knowing (Reason and Torbert, 2001;

Sanderson and Allard, 2001; Schultz, 2001), particularly when working with

communities and practitioners, methodologies must be employed that respect and

recognise local practices, knowledges and cultures so that findings are grounded in

experience and socio-cultural intent. Approaches that utilise narrative are congruent

with the philosophy of participatory action research and enable understandings to be

fluidly constructed over time as a project unfolds. Polkinghorne (1988, p. 161) has

identified two types of narrative that embody these functions. The first or descriptive

aims to outline narratives that already exist and provide the 'means for ordering and

making temporal events meaningful.' The second or explanatory 'ties together and

orders events so as to make apparent the way they 'caused' the happening under

investigation'. In drawing parallels between the law and qualitative research,

Donlevy (2003) notes that affidavits, opening addresses by lawyers and the summary

by judges are narratives accepted by the court as reliable accounts. Juries are

involved in a process very similar to qualitative research where recognised proce-

dures are adopted and where narratives, stories and evidence are given from expert

witnesses, direct participants and critical friends resulting in outcomes that are taken

to be trustworthy.

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564

Within the concept and practice of narrative (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000;

Bullough and Pinnegar, 2001), democratic participation is an essential element in the

production of new knowledge where greater definition can be given to human under-

standing of social and physical existence. There is a direct connection and movement

between the human capacity for judgement, decision making, ideas and values on the

one hand and the rich substrate of experience and reflection on the other. Ultimately,

this process leads to a critical consciousness, the capacity of humans to not only be

aware of and think about their own biographies, but to provide critique of their own

cognition and activity from a moral and political viewpoint.

A holistic and integrated approach to research and knowledge, indeed to life itself,

enables participants to reflect upon their experience and to engage a process that chal-

lenges personal ideas, values and practices. The following two e-mail messages written

by myself as lecturer indicate the role that writing can play in assisting reflective

thought and the possibility for critical consciousness. The first describes an incident

from an Australian Bachelor of Education class for final year pre-service teachers:

'We could be doing what Freire said!'This comment from a student blew

me away, my excitement almost uncontained. It came towards the end of

our Year 4 case conference when we were discussing the data as a whole.

As the beginning teachers had noted the changes in their own practice

and thinking amply shown in the cases, I had taken the opportunity to

make a few points about the series of transitions that I see happening

throughout the BEd. These are about seven in all I estimate, ranging from

a pre-university to university transition and then 3/4 years later, the uni-

versity to becoming professional transition ie from being a university stu-

dent to a disciplined practitioner. While the latter is to be expected if the

course structure is accurate and enabling, a final transition that is not

required of graduates is movement towards that of critical consciousness

as described by Freire where our thinking and reflection becomes that of

personal, organisational and structural critique for social change, per-

haps recognition of a structure/agency duality. The case conference had

thrown up comments like 'taking ourselves out of ourselves' an insight

that had certainly not been there earlier in the year, although the notion

of 'working hypothesis' introduced by myself as critical friend, had been

accepted readily as a means for the group to think about and investigate

itself. The remark about Freire was hugely significant and spontaneous

arising from our consideration of the case data and seemed to me to indi-

cate the growing professional understanding that was present and

emerging; is great leaps going too far? To witness new thresholds and

ideas condense from the vapours of practical experience is evidence of

transformation from one state to another.

(e-mail communication, October 18, 2002)

This is a personal reflection on my part. The comment regarding Freire (Freire, 1998;

Glass, 2001) may have been completely innocent, co-incidental. But I suspect not.

NEIL HOOLEY

The structure of the 4-year Bachelor of Education has been carefully constructed to

enable learning by doing, the establishment of partnership teams between the university

and schools where team members are immersed in the difficult experience of profes-

sional practice and from which they must make their own interpretations. If the struc-

ture is reasonably supportive of participant action and reflection, then practice will be

underpinned by theory when the need arises, what has been read and discussed will

become applicable to guide understanding and new insights will emerge as the mass

of complex experience is reached. Hopefully the critical friend as participant will be

attuned to such incidents as they occur.

For a researcher concerned with the production of new knowledge from a context

of maximum participation, the separation between life and research is blurred. All

that occurs contributes to the energy of the brain and its transformation into thought

no matter how confused. Conversations with students in the corridor, meetings with

teachers at a school, interactions between students and teachers, political events

occurring worldwide, a beautiful sunset or dust storm, decisions regarding personal

finances, all cannot be excluded from the experiential base, in fact, they form the

experiential base. All of these are also generated from the culture within which the

research groups finds itself and from which its collective thinking cannot be discon-

nected. Freire had been discussed to varying extents for example at different times

over the previous 4 years and perhaps it had taken this long for the complex structures

of the brain to generate a new thought similar to a 'big bang' process.

The second message concerns another personal reflection on the question of con-

sciousness as noted above and stimulated by the experience of class discussions

within the Bachelor of Education program and personal reading:

Given the exciting developments of modern science at the time, it is

understandable that both Dewey and Freud sought scientific explanation

for a theory of mind and human understanding. They differed markedly

however on Freud's unconscious that creates its own reality and impera-

tives and Dewey's consciousness that emerges from experience and links

mind, nature and culture. Dewey's view is not that far removed from what

is now called complexity theory when he suggests that mind is a function

of matter and that consciousness enables humans to learn from experi-

ence, to make decisions and judgements and to develop morality. In part,

this is the debate between theism and materialism. One hundred years

later, it would be interesting to have his assessment of the struggle that

cosmologists let alone philosophers now have of uniting matter, energy,

information, complexity, consciousness.

Considerations such as these inform undergraduate programs particularly

those involving education and knowledge workers such as teachers. A

broadly philosophical approach around mathematics and information and

communication technologies for example, would refocus learning around

fundamental questions of epistemology rather than the mere imparting of

skill in classrooms that is of little benefit to anyone. Adopting Dewey's

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PARTICIPATION AND THE QUESTION OF KNOWLEDGE

566

views as a guide would emphasise the child's theoretical construction of

mathematical ideas and a practical reconstruction of their meaning, rather

than a simplistic transmission of universal truths that are said to already

exist. The problem of entropy made it difficult for both Freud and Dewey to

explain how energy is converted into thought, but today's theory of com-

plexity should work in favour of the curriculum designer. To integrate

mathematics and ICT into a philosophical investigation of knowledge

begins to break open the intellectual straitjacket imposed on children in

schools and reconfigures teacher education programs similarly.

Dewey's theory of mind in the era of Darwin, was evolutionary. He

needed to be able to show how the brain was able to convert perceptions

into judgements with aesthetic and moral value and to go beyond the

immediate in space and time. Freud had also believed the connection

between psychoanalysis and biology but it was difficult to prove. He

placed importance on an emotional past, entrapment in a repressed and

intellectual morass, whereas Dewey saw humans drawing on the experi-

ence of the past to create a new and reconstructed future. As mentioned

previously, the models of cosmology showing how the universe might

work, also inform our understanding of mind, if the universe develops

and changes in response to the principles of its physical components,

then so too does mind. In the end, there is only matter. Structures of for-

mal programs need to locate themselves within the great narratives of the

modern era such as these and not ignore the implications.

(e-mail communication November 2, 2002)

Why is the question of consciousness of such importance for the writer, for myself?

Why does critical consciousness appear to offer explanation or a way forward when

events are witnessed or experienced? From the theory of complexity, it would be

argued that the writer's cognitive structures have been established from a working

class culture of poverty and factory work, growing up in a coastal and rural environ-

ment, intense experience of opposition to war and teaching and teacher union activ-

ity. It is not clear as to why this experience has been seen as important to

communicate in writing for many years, except a family history where reading and

writing particularly of poetry featured, a classical situation of working class literacy.

As a broader reading of academic and political texts ensued, the connections between

social life and the need to act in a systematic way against exploitation and oppression

became more acute. That is, as the connections between practice and theory became

more obvious. This lived experience has become dominant and therefore has been

transferred to the field of educational research. A person with a more middle class

background would have a more middle class approach to research, where their life

can be abstracted from research projects and knowledge itself, where 'objectivity'

and 'neutrality' can be maintained, if not vigorously defended.

The work of left wing and critical political theorists and of the pragmatic philoso-

phers have combined to make sense of what has been observed and experienced.

NEIL HOOLEY

There is of course under this approach a limit to how far humans can develop a

critique of themselves. If consciousness is a function of matter then it is impossible

to be entirely critical of events and personal action and views, we are in fact, trapped

by our own constitution. How conscious can we become of our own consciousness

and therefore of our own failings, inadequacies and limitations? The writing con-

tained in this paper and the examples of informal yet reflective communication for

comment and criticism, show some attempt at making experience and views public

as they occur, little regard for correctness and a determination to engage a holistic

and socio-cultural approach to research and knowledge.

UNENDING CYCLES OF LIFE

Where do reflections or musing of this type lead, what are the practical outcomes,

what is the place of exploratory writing, is there really a dialectic between knowing

and doing? As an example of such issues, Figure 38.1 below is an attempt to schemat-

ically depict the writer's current emergent thinkiing about the key features of educa-

tion and of a tertiary education program in particular. It contains some terms that are

beyond the scope of this chapter, but they have been included to give a more com-

plete picture of the issues that need to be incorporated into a comprehensive model

of educational practice. There is an attempt to bring together philosophical questions

with those that embrace epistemological structure and educational organisation.

567

PARTICIPATION AND THE QUESTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Philosophical Model

Critical Theory

Public Sphere

Indigenous Learning

Consciousness

Field, Habitus

Educational Concepts

Learning Net

Democracy Organisational Structure

Reflective unity of practice/theory Spiral Curriculum

Inquiry, integrated learning Narrative teams

Mentoring

Learning Circles

Figure 38.1. Emerging relationship between philosophy, education and organization

568

They have been identified with the Australian Indigenous issues of reconciliation

raised above as determining factors (see Hooley, 2002, for an expanded discussion).

It is difficult to expose one's thoughts as an ongoing and tentative narrative to public

scrutiny and criticism as part of a research process, much easier to argue aloofness

and disconnection. To not only describe personal thoughts but attempt self-critique

and a possible explanation as to their origin, to describe consciousness in action is

almost impossible. The 'hard problem' in philosophy of explaining how humans

experience the experience of consciousness will remain for some time. What appears

possible and necessary is a rich and challenging experience on which systematic

reflection can be undertaken with the subsequent generation of diverse views that can

be enhanced or rejected. The artefacts of consciousness can be displayed and cri-

tiqued but not consciousness itself. This is a significant outcome of the process to

this point, that the artefacts of consciousness expressed as ideas, strategies, schema,

dilemmas, are central to any research process and are fashioned and refashioned by

the acknowledged perspective of the participating group. Perspective becomes a

technology working with the ideas-action dialectic. This process demands a life-long

commitment to knowledge where all aspects of experience are connected to every-

thing else and where truth although apparently consistent with reality today, may

exhibit severe contradictions tomorrow.

AFTERWORD

So where has our reflective and discursive narrative taken us, have issues been

encountered that will benefit a more progressive teacher education? I have attempted

to write reflectively in narrative form, exposing the thoughts that flow through my

mind and which crowd in as an integrated whole. Many of the issues are too difficult

for resolution at this time and will remain as background constructs while we strug-

gle with daily practice. For me, Figure 38.1 is an important working diagram for

teacher education, containing a schema for new perceptual and conceptual knowl-

edge emerging as a result of experience, reflection and the writing of this chapter. It

may not constitute new understandings for other readers and researchers.

The key idea that has occurred to me during the writing of this chapter is that of

the connections between Indigenous knowing and critical consciousness and what we

can learn from this for teaching and learning in schools. How do teachers work with

this connection for example? Some theorising of mind and the place of participation

has been included which raises serious implications for the design of tertiary educa-

tion programs and teacher education specifically. It seems that teacher education

programs that concentrate on technique alone and not the full scope of interrelation-

ships contained in practice, will not impact on the world or teachers and children. As

a further outcome of the writing itself, the final paragraph above indicates new

perspectives for myself, with new references, ideas and avenues to be pursued; 'ideas

in action' or 'understanding in progress' is the nature of the work involved. I invite all

readers to participate in the confusing and uncertain journey of personal inquiry

ahead.

NEIL HOOLEY

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NEIL HOOLEY

INTRODUCTION: 'WHAT IS A TEACHER?'

This chapter is based on three recent research studies into schoolteachers' professional

experience carried out by the author and others in England (Moore, 2004a; Moore

and Ash, 2004; Moore et al ., 2002). The first of these was an action research

study involving over a hundred beginning teachers on pre-service courses, in which

respondents were invited to keep professional journals to record their reflections and

feelings about classroom life, identifying issues – often very personal – for discussion

with one or more of their course tutors. The second was a one-year, interview-based

study, also involving beginning teachers, that followed ten respondents through their

pre-service year in an attempt to identify factors what either hindered or helped the

development of informed reflection on practice in the early stages of a teaching

career. The third comprised individual and group interviews with eight school princi-

pals and approximately seventy primary and secondary school classroom teachers.

The initial purpose of this study was to learn more about the ways in which teachers

and school principals construct – and perhaps re-construct – their professional identi-

ties within contexts of rapid, mandated educational policy change, some of which

they may feel less than happy about, and within equally rapid changes in society at

large.

All of this research has suggested that beginning teachers, no less than experienced

teachers, are engaged in ongoing philosophical and pedagogical repositionings and

reorientations in the face of their unfolding professional experience and expertise,

and that these inevitably impact either positively or negatively on the development of

their professional learning. These repositionings and relocations, which we might

wish to be principally informed by constructive, critical reflection on practice, take

place within and are strongly influenced by a bewildering barrage of voices or gazes –

some dating from our social and educational pasts, some from our ongoing

experience – advising or instructing the teacher both what it is to be a teacher and

what one has to achieve in order to be 'good' at it (Britzman, 1989, 1991; Moore,

2004b). I imagine we all know what these voices are, though such knowledge does

little to abate the havoc they can cause. They are the voices of the news media and of

films and books and television programmes; the voices of politicians and taxi drivers;

the voices of our families and friends, of people in bars and shopping malls and in the

street; the voices of our students, of our colleagues – those on and not on the teaching

staff – and of our students'parents; the voices of our tutors and mentors; and also the

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39. UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL SELF:

THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF REFLEXIVITY IN

SCHOOLTEACHERS' PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 571–584.

572

voices of those remembered teachers from our own school days, the ones we aspire –

often self-destructively – to be like. As Hewitson (2004) and others have suggested,

these voices do not always chime, often presenting themselves (Britzman, 1991)

as 'cacaphonic'. The voice of government policy, for example, may not always sit

comfortably with the voice of our own preferred, internalised pedagogic orientation,

and the voices of our university tutors may not always agree with those of our parents

and friends. To quote one student in a study carried out by Moore and Atkinson in the

late 1990s (reported in Moore 2004a, pp. 41–2):

Every time I go home I'm getting told why [setting students by ability] is

better than mixed ability, and why silent working is better than group

work, and why everyone should wear school uniform; and I just can't

answer it. Every time I start telling them something else, I feel I just can't

argue the case. I don't even sound convincing to myself. They just keep

telling me I'm following the party line and I shouldn't listen to what I'm

told at [the university] because it's all full of do-gooders and lefties, and

quoting all these good and rubbish teachers I had when I was at school,

and how I got good results in the subjects where the teachers were most

strict … . And then I come back [to the university] and I'm listening to

totally the opposite. And when I'm here this all makes sense again,

but … I'm just totally confused.

THE POWER OF PREDISPOSITIONS AND

THE OUTLAWING OF THE AFFECTIVE

As has been argued elsewhere, it is the preconceptions and predispositions that student

teachers bring with them to their pre-service courses that often exerts the greatest

influence on the ways in which they experience and make sense of new classroom

interactions and that may present the greatest obstacle to the development of new

learning. Afonso and others have argued in this regard that the power of the beginning

teacher's prior beliefs and perceptions can be so strong that they act as 'filters', affect-

ing the ways in which pre-service programmes themselves are experienced and

approached (Afonso, 2001; see also Goodman, 1988; Hollingsworth, 1989; Weinstein,

1989; Britzman, 1991; Wideen et al., 1998). This is a view which echoes Mezirow's

wider analysis of adult learning, in which acquired 'meaning schemes' and perspec-

tives effectively 'protect' the individual from challenging existing assumptions and

beliefs, setting up ' "boundary structures" for perceiving and comprehending new data'

(Mezirow 1991, p. 49). Such schemes and perspectives, Mezirow argues, serve to:

'diminish our awareness of how things really are in order to avoid anxiety, creating a

zone of blocked action and self-deception.' (See also Rose, 2001.)

The (beginning) teacher, however, is not just exercised by an intellectual challenge

in making sense of classroom and staffroom encounters through separating out the

false voices from the friendly ones – or, as Brookfield (1990) puts it, of hunting down

and challenging their existing assumptions. In addition to this – but fundamentally

ALEX MOORE

and inextricably bound to it – is a project that affects our lives far beyond the confines

of the school walls, and that may be seen as the shaping force of each individual biogra-

phy and each subsequent, very personalised 'way of experiencing'. This is the more

emotional, often less visible human need for the love and justification of our fellow

beings: the need for reassurance that we are who – or what – we claim to be and that

we are appreciated for being it. As one student teacher poignantly summed this up in

a recent research study into the professional learning of beginning teachers carried

out at the Institute of Education, University of London: 'With teaching, it's not just

how you see yourself, it's about how you see how other people see you: how you see

yourself being seen.' (Moore and Ash, 2002)

I want to suggest that these emotional, affective aspects of classroom experience

and professional learning are typically overlooked, marginalized and even pathologised

by those other voices telling us who and what we should be (particularly those encoun-

tered through government edicts), and that this marginalisation of the affective is

precisely what underlies the difficulties many of us experience in moving beyond our

'boundary structures'. Indeed, one of the reasons why these voices often appear so

cacaphonic is that we are invited to make sense of them – if at all – in ways that

decontextualise them from our individual histories of ways of feeling, and indeed

from our individual ways of experiencing classroom life (McLaughlin and Talbert,

1990). That is to say, we are expected to learn about teaching against some kind of

non-affective blueprint as if we could do so without simultaneously developing

understandings of who we are, what we want and how we have come to respond to

social life in the ways we do.

POWERFUL DISCOURSES

In trying to make better sense of the various imperatives of what we should be and

what we should be doing, I have suggested elsewhere (Moore, 2004a) that we locate

these voices within larger, overlapping discourses of teaching and teacher education

that guide and dominate perceptions of teaching and teachers in the wider social

world. I have, somewhat tentatively, identified three of these, which I have called the

competent craftsperson discourse, the charismatic subject discourse and the reflective

practitioner discourse.

The competent craftsperson discourse, currently enjoying worldwide popularity in

the field of teacher education but also, increasingly, in the fields of Further and

Higher Education generally (see, for example, Bernstein, 1996), comprehends

schoolteaching fundamentally in terms of a set of acquired and discretely demon-

strable skills and strategies, to be learned through a combination of formal teaching

and practical application. The teacher within this discourse, which has little to say

about individuality, local circumstances or reflection on practice (Maguire, 1995), is

understood and configured as 'made' rather than born (Britzman, 1991). The art of

teaching itself can be described in lists of skills and achievements, which often double

as the assessment criteria against which teachers'and student teachers'performance is

judged. The charismatic subject discourse, always popular in the public imagination

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574

and in feature films about teacher heroes and saviours, emphasises, by contrast, the

individuality and communicative skills of the teacher, tending to underplay knowledge

about teaching and representing teachers as born rather than made – or at least

made in ways that are informal, contingent and not easily reproduceable. Such

teachers are typically portrayed in filmic representations as deliberately 'throwing

out' perceived wisdom, preferring to rely on instinct and native wit rather than on

acquired competences (Dalton, 1999, Mitchell and Weber, 1996). In the reflective

practitioner discourse – popular in recent years in university departments offering

pre-service and professional development courses for teachers and expounded by,

among others Schon (1983, 1987), Valli (1992) and Elliott (1993a, b) – emphasis is

given to thinking about and articulating one's always developing, never perfect practice,

firmly grounding new learning in the context of the practicum. Becoming more

effective as a teacher within the terms of this discourse cannot simply occur through

the acquisition and development of skills and strategies or of a more 'charismatic'

classroom persona, but via informed analysis of the nature and causes of classroom

interactions.

Each and all of these discourses, if sensibly and critically engaged with, can provide

useful frameworks for the understanding and betterment of what we do, as well as

supporting us through the challenges that await us in our many and varied classroom

encounters: each and all can help us become 'better' at what we do. They all, however,

share three common difficulties. The first is that each discourse becomes dangerous

when allowed to dominate at the expense of the others: that is, when it becomes the

sole or nearly the sole lens through which what we do is perceived, understood and

accounted for. This particular difficulty has beset the competent craftsperson

discourse in the UK and elsewhere in recent years, suggesting a technicist blueprint

for teacher development that leaves teachers and student teachers floundering for

advice and support when the universal advice offered by the discourse appears to

have only marginal applicability to the particular teaching situations in which the

teacher finds themself (for example, in a tough inner-city school whose students do

not fit the image of the ideal student implicit in much of this discourse). It has also

affected and restricted the development of the reflective practice discourse, in that

this discourse has effectively become 'colonized' by the competent craftsperson

discourse to the extent that reflection itself is seen in terms of a competence rather

than a process or function, with the emphasis on its 'demonstrability' rather than on

its effectiveness (Johnson, 1989). To quote one beginning teacher, frustrated at the

constant requirement to 'provide evidence of reflective practice' via individual lesson

evaluations on her teaching practice:

The whole idea of reflective practice is all very well, but it's very individual,

and I think we fall too often into the trap of assuming that reflective

practice is x, y and z when perhaps for other people it's different … It's

like with teaching: teaching for everybody is different. … We've been

given these sheets to help us do reflection, to be more reflective in our

practice, and on the one hand they're helpful but on the other hand if a

ALEX MOORE

certain thing doesn't happen in your lesson or you didn't pick it up as

happening in your lesson, how can you reflect on it? So whilst you may

be meeting these dreaded standards, you can't always "evidence" it. And

I think one of the things with our society today is that we're obsessed with

paper-work, and we're obsessed with assessment. But we're not just

obsessed with assessment, we're obsessed with the way that the assess-

ment happens, and the way that it's proven. And I think whilst it's helpful

to have frameworks, it's easy to feel that if you haven't ticked all the

boxes then in some way you're failing.

(Moore and Ash, 2002, quoted in Moore 2004a, pp. 107–108).

The second difficulty with these discourses is that they tend to have little or nothing

to say in response to the stress and upset that inevitably arises from time to time out

of the often highly-charged atmosphere of the classroom and the staffroom, other

than the platitudinous and futile instruction to 'leave one's emotional baggage at

home'. Far from encouraging explorations and understandings of the experiencing

self, these discourses – even, ironically, that of the charismatic subject – have a ratio-

nalistic turn, traceable to common idealist roots. Within this turn, the individual sub-

ject is not only held ultimately responsible for their own conduct but is not

encouraged and often not allowed to introduce reflections of personal and wider

circumstances – whether present or past – into discussions and explanations of what

is going right or wrong.

This difficulty relates closely to the final difficulty, which is that each discourse

has the capacity – indeed, in the case of the charismatic subject and competent

craftsperson discourses the tendency – to emphasise individual choice, responsibility

and (often) blame at the expense of recognising and valuing idiosyncrasy and diver-

sity but also of underestimating the impact and influence of wider social issues and

failings on the teaching and learning situation. In a particularly perceptive indictment

of the currently favoured competent craftsperson discourse, Bernstein points up this

'personalisation' of the teacher's craft as a somewhat cynical attempt to deflect

debates and understandings of educational failure away from social policy failings by

concentrating perceived failures on schools, teachers and even students and their

families. In Bernstein's words, we are pointed 'away from the macro blot on the

micro context' (Bernstein, 1996, p. 56).

THE IMPORTANCE OF REFLEXIVITY:

UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF OUR PAST ON

OUR EXPERIENCE OF THE PRESENT

The individualising policy turn to which Bernstein alludes is curious in that although it

focuses attention away from systems towards individual performance it simultaneously

underestimates individuality by way of its universalising tendencies. To summarise this

apparent contradiction, we might say that public policy in one respect does focus on

the contingent/idiosyncratic aspects of teaching – that is to say, the here and now, the

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576

'practical and practicable', rather than on the wider picture, the more broadly

applicable theory – but that in doing this it simultaneously promotes a certain kind of

universalism that turns us away from other contingent/idiosyncratic aspects such as

teachers' differing biographies and 'selves' or the backgrounds and attitudes of their

students or the resource environments in which they work.

As has already been suggested, what such a turn tends to bring about is a concomi-

tant underprivileging – at times, almost an outlawing – of the emotional, affective

aspects of classroom teaching and of the classroom experience. Experience itself too

easily gets to be configured within this turn as something 'out there' waiting for us to

engage with it, when what we should be doing is guiding ourselves towards under-

standings of the experiencing itself – in particular, why it is that we experience things

in the ways that we do, and why and how we experience them differently from one

another (why, for example, certain classroom events and interactions particularly please

or upset or anger some of us when many of our colleagues appear to remain relatively

indifferent to those same kinds of events and interactions and more easily respond to

them in a measured and strategic way). Such understanding, which is what I mean here

by 'reflexivity', involves active, conscious development of self-understanding: that is,

understanding our social selves and how those selves have been produced through

experience over time.

Anna Freud (1979) famously argued that teachers should not just consider but

actually have a duty to attempt to understand their own actions and re-actions in the

teaching situation in order to avoid the possible negative consequences on their

students of a failure or a refusal to do so. To quote Britzman and Pitt's summary of

this position:

…teachers'encounters with students may return them involuntarily and

still unconsciously to scenes from their individual biographies. Such an

exploration requires that teachers consider how they understand students

through their own subjective conflicts. … The heart of the matter, for

Anna Freud, is the ethical obligation teachers have to learn about their

own conflicts and to control the re-enactment of old conflicts that appear

in the guise of new pedagogical encounters.

(Britzman and Pitt, 1996, p. 118)

Anna Freud's suggestion that how we experience life in the classroom may be

strongly affected by how we experience and have previously experienced life -including

family life – outside the classroom is reflected in a number of projects undertaken by

teacher educators that involve the encouragement of practitioners to describe and

interrogate their own autobiographies (see, for instance, Quicke, 1988; Schon, 1988;

Cole and Knowles, 1995; Thomas 1995). Part of that activity, aimed at helping

practitioners to understand more clearly 'the way in which a personal life can be pen-

etrated by the social and the practical' (Thomas 1995, p. 5) and to make sense of

'prior and current life experiences in the context of the personal as it influences the

professional' (Cole and Knowles, 1995, p. 130), involves encouraging individual

teachers and student teachers to critique difficulties they may be experiencing in the

ALEX MOORE

here and now within the context of previous roles and experiences they have encoun-

tered 'outside' the classroom situation in, for example, their family life or their own

schooling, rather than ignoring or denying such encounters. Inevitably, this also

introduces issues of desire (Hargreaves, 1994; McLaren 1996; Boler, 1999) into

understandings of practice:

'What do I want from these interactions?' 'What do others want of me?'

'What am I afraid of?' 'What do I want to do about the things I don't like

here?' – and perhaps the hardest and yet most glibly answered of all:

'Why did I choose to become a teacher [in the first place]?'

Britzman, and Britzman and Pitt, have pushed this a little further, and rendered the

phenomenon more explicit through referencing it to Sigmund Freud's notion of repe-

tition (Freud, 1968, p. 454), whereby we unconsciously seek out new sites for old,

unresolved conflicts. The classroom in particular, Britzman and Pitt suggest:

…invites transferential relations because, for teachers, it is such a famil-

iar place, one that seems to welcome re-enactments of childhood memo-

ries. Indeed, recent writing about pedagogy suggests that transference

shapes how teachers respond and listen to students, and how students

respond and listen to teachers …

(Britzman and Pitt, 1996, p. 117, 118, emphasis added: see also

Felman, 1987; Penley, 1989; Gallop, 1995)

Such an approach to understanding the difficulties and anxieties we may sometimes

feel in the teaching and learning situation may be seen as running counter to the

advice often given to teachers, cited above, to 'leave their emotional baggage at

home'. This advice, of course, is well meant, but it may be impossible to achieve.

What we should really be doing, these commentators seem to suggest, is not so much

to leave our emotional baggage at home as to make sure that it is appropriately managed

in public places – including, in this case, the public places of the classroom and the

staffroom: that it is not, for instance, left in the aisle for oneself or others to trip over;

that certain items are better left inside than taken out; and that sometimes there may

actually be something forgotten inside the baggage that can help us out of a difficult

situation. In other words, the emotional aspects of the classroom experience cannot

be denied; nor can they be made to go away by pretending that they do not exist or by

treating them as some unwanted sickness. Furthermore, the past never goes away

either: it leaves its legacy within us, shaping how we experience and respond to new and

often challenging situations and how we proceed – successfully or unsuccessfully –

to conflict resolution. The beginning teacher who says to her visiting tutor 'I have

tried everything, and everything has failed'may well find herself stuck in an impasse

precisely because she still seeks answers to her questions in discourses of compe-

tence, reflection and charisma rather than adopting a more reflexive turn; that is to

say, continuing to configure and understand the problem as 'out there' in the objec-

tive relations of the classroom rather than considering the possibility that it might, in

part at least, be located 'internally', in some place that is much harder to find.

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578

As has already been indicated, seeking out this other place is not a question of

substituting the competent craftsperson, reflective practitioner or charismatic subject

discourses with the reflexive turn, but rather of adopting it 'outside'those discourses

in a way that makes it easier and more profitable to enter, to understand, to negotiate

and perhaps to benefit from them; that is to say, a contextualising function that helps

replace morbid, unconstructive 'self ' criticism ('Something in me is wrong') with

constructive, reasoned, 'action' criticism ('Something that's being done is wrong').

To cite one popular dictionary definition of reflexivity, this is not just an 'action of

mind by which it is conscious of its own operations' but includes, additionally, the

concept of a representational technique whereby part of a picture is 'illuminated by

light from another part of the same picture' (The Chambers English Dictionary 1990,

pp. 1233–34): in this case, the part of the picture relating to specific incidents, encoun-

ters or feelings is illuminated by the historical, biographical context within which

those incidents, encounters and feelings are experienced.

SEEKING A MANDATE: ISSUES OF IDENTIFICATION

Earlier, a young beginning teacher was quoted. With teaching, she said,

it's not just how you see yourself, it's about how you see how other peo-

ple see you: how you see yourself being seen.

This same teacher went on to say:

What you inevitably end up doing is looking at the pupils and judging

yourself through them. The children are in your head all the time […]

That exposure … I mean, I have never been in that kind of situation

before. It's a big thing … My kind of strengths and weaknesses are kind

of really there, in front of me.

(quoted in Moore, 2004a, p. 157)

For a number of beginning teachers taking part in this same study it was a sense of see-

ing themselves as their students might be seeing them, including, in some cases, a very

powerful desire to be liked by their students, that constituted the dominant gaze on their

developing practice. For others, it was a desire to measure up to absent-but-ever-present

teachers they had had themselves at school, or had seen teaching impressively at their

practice schools. For all ten of the young teachers in this particular study, this sense of

exposure was accompanied by a sense of fear of exposure (to quote one student teacher,

Sarah, 'There are certain people you're not going to ever admit to that things are going

wrong'): a mixture, perhaps, of wanting to be able to be 'oneself' with pupils and

colleagues – of exposing oneself, in a sense; of being 'found' – and of being afraid to be

found, with all one's shortcomings there for all to see. In some cases this led to a deci-

sion that true exposure could only be countenanced once a certain degree of 'self

improvement'had been achieved, or in the temporary adoption of a classroom 'persona':

It's a bit of a persona in a way and not really wanting that persona to be

too far away from who I am, because then it feels like you are having a

ALEX MOORE

role all day long and I think that's very hard work, having to actually pre-

tend to be someone different.

(quoted in Moore, 2004a: 157)

Though voiced by seemingly very confident people, such confessions may be seen to

reveal the sometimes fragile nature of the human psyche and, in particular, the way

in which that fragility is put under particular pressure or particularly exposed in the

teaching situation. They may also cast some light on the difficulties experienced by

some 'failing' students, as well as helping us to understand what makes the 'meaning

schemes' (op.cit.) of some adult learners more durable and resistant to modification

than others.

By way of exploring a little further these situations and experiences, I want to

rehearse, very briefly, some of the ideas of Slavoj Zizek (see also Moore, 2004b),

whose interest in our understanding of the social self involves, among other things,

taking key concepts of the psycho-analyst Jacques Lacan (cf. Lacan, 1977, 1979) and

applying them to the everyday situations and experiences within which we all habit-

ually find ourselves.

Offering a potentially helpful heuristic for making sense of the ways in which we

(differentially and individually) experience and make sense of our social (including

our professional) lives, while falling short of advising us to adopt the risky pursuit of

self-psycho-analysis, Zizek suggests, after Lacan, that each of us develops or achieves

a specific identity or identities inside the socio-symbolic world into which we are

born. This socio-symbolic world – referred to by Lacan as the 'Other' – effectively

'fixes' our place within it, announcing to ourselves and to others who and what we

are. Precisely because these identifications are – or appear to be – produced within

the 'Other' we require constant reassurance that we are that which we think and are

told we are being. The 'subject', Zizek says:

is always fastened, pinned, to a signifier which represents him [sic] for

[others], and through this pinning he is loaded with a symbolic man-

date, … is given a place in the intersubjective network of symbolic rela-

tions.

(Zizek, 1989, p. 113)

Developing these ideas a little more fully, Zizek adopts the terms 'imaginary' and

'symbolic' identification to throw light on our professional positionings and the self-

understandings in light of which they are made. Imaginary identification here refers

to 'the way we see ourselves', while symbolic identification refers to 'the point from

which [we are] being observed to appear likeable to [ourselves]' (Zizek, 1989,

p. 106). Zizek argues that although each form of identification has, at its root, the

individual's desire to satisfy and to be loved, and to find out what action/behaviour is

required in order to satisfy and be loved, in the case of imaginary identification the

subject seeks to emulate, perhaps through the kind of role-playing referred to by one

of the beginning teachers cited above, qualities that they feel they have discovered in

other individuals (for us, for example, other teachers) in order to achieve the

desired effect. In the case of symbolic identification, however, the question inevitably

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580

arises: 'For whom is the subject enacting this role? Which gaze is considered when the

subject identifies himself [sic] with a certain image?'(ibid. p. 106).

From the point of view of initial and continuing teacher education and development,

what this suggests is that in addition to copying models of 'good practice' found in

other people, the practitioner will be making a judgement of what that good practice

is, not from some ideal, primordial, disinterested point of view, but from a particular

perspective within the symbolic order. This may be the perspective of a particular set

of shared social practices and beliefs, but it might equally (and simultaneously) be

the perspective of a specific individual or group of individuals. Constant references

to parents and their views, for example, might be seen as a symptom of a deeper

anxiety in the beginning teacher, who feels her/himself to be continually spotlighted

under the paternal or the maternal gaze.

For Lacan and Zizek, difficulties arise as a result of a 'gap' between 'the way we see

ourselves' (imaginary identification) and 'the point from which [we are] being

observed to appear likeable to [ourselves]' (symbolic identification) (Zizek, 1989

p. 106) – typically linked, in the professional field, to the requirement for a 'symbolic

mandate': e.g. 'I have been mandated to be a teacher, but what must I be – what am

I expected to be – within the terms of the symbolic order, the "Other", and within the

terms of my own image of self, in order to justify my role as teacher, in order to be able

to explain my mandate to myself and to others?' Zizek argues that it is an ability to

move beyond such questions, or to come to view them as unnecessary (i.e. 'There is no

mandate to support the role I seek to assume.') that is necessary if the difficulty caused

by such questions is to be removed. Similarly, it is an inability to move beyond such

questions – an obsessive pursuit of the answer to the question 'What do others – what

does the Other – desire of me, beneath it all, beneath the demands that are being made

upon me and that I am meeting but still without being liked?'– that results in continued

anxiety, in a sense of failure and lack of self-worth and, ultimately, in failure itself.

CONCLUSION: IDENTIFICATION, REFLEXIVITY

AND PEDAGOGY

If such issues may be seen, at first glance, as marginal or fanciful in terms of profes-

sional learning, there is ample evidence in the research data – in, for example, stories

of moving away from 'needing to be liked for who I am' to 'focussing more on my

students' development, and hoping they may come to like and respect me as a result',

or of adopting classroom 'personae', or of overcoming feelings of professional inad-

equacy, or of being concerned about 'how you see yourself being seen' (Moore,

2004b) – to suggest that this particular field of enquiry might offer useful insights not

only into understanding the nature of successful teaching but also – and more perti-

nently perhaps – into understanding how better to support beginning teachers who

appear to have many of the necessary attributes for pedagogic success but still find

themselves failing in the classroom under the weight of anxiety and of what one of

my own student teachers referred to as the 'over-personalisation' of difficulties. In

terms of the successful beginning teachers in the research study to which I have

ALEX MOORE

alluded, we might say that, for whatever reasons, they had learned – either before

joining the course or during it – not just to be pragmatic and eclectic in terms of

classroom practice but (another thing altogether) to be 'comfortable with a [social-

professional] self that is complicated and inconsistent' (Laupert, 1985, p. 193,

emphasis added). Furthermore, this was something of a requirement for the develop-

ment of authentic reflection on their practice leading to improvement in that practice.

We might not unreasonably hope that a deeper understanding of how they have

achieved such relative comfort, or of the impact of previous and ongoing experiences

on that achievement, might provide us with invaluable help not only in offering

appropriate support in the development of our students' own reflective practice, but

in working with student teachers for whom such an achievement comes far less easily

and whose accomplishment is likely to require far more pain.

In this regard I have offered Zizek's analysis, like that of Britzman, somewhat

tentatively but nevertheless optimistically. Their ideas – and those of Lacan (1977)

and Freud (1968) on which they are to a degree predicated – offer us exciting possi-

bilities which require a lot more careful thought on our part if we are to make the most

effective use of them. They can, however, help us toward finding – and fitting – another

important piece in the jigsaw of mapping and understanding classroom experience and

practice – to be considered alongside the other voices, pressures and tensions to

which the (beginning) teacher is subjected, to be sure, but also as a context and a

process: a context within which better sense can be made of those other voices, pres-

sures and tensions; and a process that involves 'reaching inside the self' to discover

what voices we have internalised, in what ways those internalisations have been

made, and what – and whose – purposes they may serve.

The reflexive, 'self-critical'approach is not an easy one (see Boler's [1999] linking

of it to a 'pedagogy of discomfort'). However, by addressing, including and putting

us more in touch with our 'feelings' it is a vital tool in broadening our perspectives,

in resisting the narrow parameters of professional reflection established and promul-

gated within dominant public and political discourses, and in enabling us to approach

the 'cacophony of calls' (Britzman, 1991, p. 223) to which we are subjected, in an

instructive rather than a reactive way. Self-understanding may not make any one of us

a better teacher on its own. It is arguably, however, a prerequisite to becoming not just

'better' – in our own terms, not just in others' – but happier, too, and more fulfilled

in the work that we do.

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583

UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL SELF

It is not uncommon to hear teachers and researchers bemoan the perceived problems

associated with the theory-practice gap. From a research perspective there is a view

that the complex and messy world of teaching can not adequately be theorised by the

teachers who are busy working in that world whilst, from a teacher's perspective,

there is a view that theory is not necessarily helpful in responding to the need for

ideas and activities that will "work in class tomorrow". One difficulty created by the

theory-practice gap then is that policy-makers, perhaps too easily, look to theory for

solutions to "educational problems", however, such problems and solutions are not

necessarily congruent with the needs and concerns of practitioners. Therefore, finding

a balance between both perspectives is important if the construction of knowledge and

the value of theory in practice are to be more responsive to the needs of the educational

community; and lead to meaningful change. It seems reasonable to suggest that teacher

research offers one such response.

Teacher-researchers bring to bear their expert knowledge and understanding of

practice in research as they attempt to better understand their practice and its impact

on their students. Thus by researching the relationship between teaching and learning

in their world of work, that which they come to document, articulate and know is also

likely to be valuable and informative for other teachers. As a consequence, the very

nature of teacher research then offers an approach to distributed leadership (Wallace,

2003) that is likely to be supportive and affirming in assisting in educational change.

Teacher research has slowly gained a 'foothold'in the academic literature through

the work of advocates such as Lytle and Cochran-Smith (1992). Like others involved

in teacher research they have seen value in better understanding teacher research as a

way of knowing. In so doing, they have helped to create an expectation that the explica-

tion of knowledge of teaching must include the teacher's perspective, and therefore,

must be drawn from teachers' experiences of their classrooms. It has been through

the recognition of the importance of this argument that teacher research has begun to

be better valued in the worlds of theory and practice; two worlds that have an important

stake in better understanding the nature of teaching and learning but are too frequently

viewed as separate and distinct rather than intertwined and interdependent.

In Australia, the need for research to be both responsive to, and developed in, the

practice setting has become increasingly apparent and an exemplar of such work is that

of PEEL (Project for the Enhancement of Effective Learning, Baird and Mitchell,

1986; Baird and Northfield, 1992; Loughran, 1999). PEEL has been influential

585

JOHN LOUGHRAN

40. TEACHERS AS LEADERS: BUILDING

A KNOWLEDGE BASE OF PRACTICE THROUGH

RESEARCHING PRACTICE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 585–596.

586

because teachers have readily identified with the purpose underpinning the project

(enhancing student learning) and elected to be involved despite it being over and above

their normal teaching duties. Hence, an acceptance of the value of the work of PEEL

has largely been driven by teachers' needs and concerns about classroom teaching

and learning.

PEEL is based on teachers' desire to develop students as active learners through

teaching procedures that encourage the development of their metacognitive skills so

that they are engaged in their own learning; hence challenging the ever-present passive

classroom learning behaviours with which teachers are so familiar. The aims of PEEL,

as restated in Learning from the PEEL Experience (Baird and Northfield, 1992) are to:

●Foster students'independent learning through training for enhanced metacognition.

●Change teachers' attitudes and behaviours to ones that promote such learning.

●Investigate processes of teacher and student change as participants engage in

action research.

●Identify factors that influence successful implementation of a program to improve

the quality of classroom learning.

For some PEEL teachers, an interest in research emerged in response to their concerns

to know more about what was happening in their classrooms through systematic,

evidence based approaches, and so the PAVOT (Perspective and Voice of the Teacher)

project, a teacher research project driven by the research concerns of PEEL teachers,

was initiated.

THE PERSPECTIVE AND VOICE

OF THE TEACHER (PAVOT)

PAVOT created an opportunity for teachers to collaborate more closely with academic

supporters in more systematic research. As was the case with PEEL, the research was

led and controlled by the teachers. PAVOT was specifically set up to, "… assist

teachers to research aspects of their practice. It is a natural extension of PEEL in that

it aims to support teachers in documenting and communicating the kind of teaching

and learning that occurs with active involvement in PEEL, and to further explore

issues which are important to teachers in their daily work" (Mitchell and Mitchell,

1997, p. 3). Therefore PAVOT offered teachers opportunities to develop their individ-

ual voices and to document and portray their research findings and to also share their

pedagogical knowledge with other educationalists.

PAVOT is one example of valuing teacher research and of creating different ways

for teachers to display their leadership within the profession. PAVOT research has

been influenced by the notion of reframing (Schön, 1983, 1987) and is based on a

recognition that teaching is problematic. Therefore, inevitably, PAVOT teacher-

researchers 'look into' their classrooms in different ways from 'traditional'researchers

because of their familiarity with teachers' day-to-day teaching and learning concerns;

which are the catalyst of their studies.

This reframing has, in part, been facilitated through the work of PEEL and the

development of a set of principles (Mitchell and Mitchell, 1997) about the nature of

JOHN LOUGHRAN

quality teaching. These Principles of Teaching for Quality Learning (see Table 40.1)

have been useful in creating a language that has helped to give meaning to 'what it is'

that can be problematic in teaching while at the same time creating 'ways in' for

examining teaching and learning situations; 'ways in' that are critical in shaping

teacher research.

As noted by Dewey (1929) so long ago, educational practices themselves must be

the source of the ultimate problems to be investigated if we are to build a science of

education. Therefore, a focus on teacher research is paramount as it is teachers'

'problems'that are derived from a focus on teachers' educational practice, the results of

such investigations then are likely to best inform the practice setting, and importantly,

those who work in those settings; the teachers. The principles outlined in Table 40.1

then are indicative of an understanding of practice driven by the concerns and con-

structions of knowledge of (PEEL) teachers in such a way as they carry meanings

that inform their approach to teaching and learning.

LEADING THROUGH DOING

AND DISSEMINATING TEACHER RESEARCH

PAVOT helps to illustrate particular ways in which teacher research leadership is

apparent. As a brief review of this work, three examples are outlined in detail below.

Each of these examples has been selected largely as a reflection of the nature of the

type of research that teachers choose to conduct as a consequence of confronting

issues and concerns in their own practice. These examples also shed light on the

nature of these teachers' particular research needs (at the time of conducting the studies)

and offer a range of approaches to, and ways of seeing, teaching and learning from a

teachers' perspective. Finally, each is also indicative of a particular 'category' of leader-

ship through teacher research and therefore offers a strong exemplar for demonstrating

that form of leadership for others.

The first example (Boyle, 2002) is illustrative of what might be described as

Leadership through Researching Changes in Teaching and Learning and

587

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

TABLE 40.1 Principles of teaching for quality learning

1. Share intellectual control with students.

2. Look for occasions when students can work out part (or all) of the content or instructions.

3. Provide opportunities for choice and independent decision making.

4. Provide a diverse range of ways of experiencing success.

5. Promote talk that is exploratory, tentative and hypothetical.

6. Encourage students to learn from other students' questions and comments.

7. Build a classroom environment that supports risk-taking.

8. Use a wide variety of intellectually challenging teaching procedures.

9. Use Teaching procedures that are designed to promote specific aspects of quality learning.

10. Develop students'awareness of the big picture: how the various activities fit together and link to the big

ideas

11. Regularly raise students'awareness of the nature of components of quality learning.

12. Promote assessment as part of the learning process.

588

explores the development of a better understanding of teaching and some of the influ-

ences on teaching that become important in shaping approaches to researching practice.

Boyle's work highlights how different approaches to data collection, the importance of

addressing 'taken for granted' aspects of practice and, the need to be responsive to the

changes in the way research projects develop influence the way teacher-researchers

pursue their research questions.

The second example (Berry and Milroy, 2002) highlights the notion of Leadership

through Curriculum Development and is essentially a window into the complex

and protracted journey that teacher-researchers embark upon and learn through when

they begin to reconsider their teaching in relation to the curriculum that shapes that

teaching. Through critical reflection (Brookfield, 1995) Berry and Milroy illustrate

how difficult it is to separate the process from the product and that in truly coming to

understand what curriculum change really entails, there is an explicit need to share

the wisdom gained.

The third example (Osler and Flack, 2002) is illustrative of Leading through

Professional Learning. Osler and Flack demonstrate the personal risks and dangers

associated with confronting dilemmas and choosing to lead by example in the pursuit

of understanding issues pertaining to growth and development over time through a

serious regard for learning about practice and sharing that learning with others.

LEADERSHIP THROUGH RESEARCHING

CHANGES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

In this study, Boyle (2002) came to see that for quite some time she had not really

differentiated between teaching and learning because her prevailing view was that if

students were busy completing the set task and they were enjoying it, then they were

no doubt learning.

It was a long and challenging path that led me to the realization, and

then the understanding, that students need to be metacognitive if they are

to be true learners; to reflect on their learning and to understand what

makes a good learner. I also came to understand that I could assist stu-

dents in achieving that through the implementation of PEEL procedures.

My teaching journey is taking me on a frustrating yet rewarding quest for

encouraging metacognition in the students I teach … [and] to acknowl-

edge that good learning does not come from what traditionally has been

seen as "good teaching" and that engaging students in a classroom

activity does not necessarily equate with good learning. It is certainly

true that students will learn better if they are engaged in the task but are

teachers always clear on what it is that is important for students to

learn? My focus is not just on the student as a learner, but the teacher as

learner, which is made explicit in the effect that my research has had on

my approach to teaching.

(Boyle, 2002, pp. 74–75)

JOHN LOUGHRAN

Boyle goes on to explain how her assumptions of practice were continually challenged

as she came to better understand the nature of teaching with the intention of enhancing

students' metacognitive skills. She set out to help her students begin to conceptualize

Good Learning Behaviours (GLB's; see Table 40.2 for examples) so that they could

then actively shape their own understanding of their learning and therefore be more

metacognitive.

In order to encourage the development of GLBs she had her students maintain

"thinking books" (Swan and White, 1994) and to respond to a number of prompts

designed to encourage their metacognitive skills e.g., "What I did today … ; What I

learnt today … ; To improve my learning I could …" However, she found that the

comments her students wrote in their thinking books were related to the tasks they

completed in class rather than to their thinking and learning e.g., "what I did today

was draw a map"; "what I learnt today was how to draw a map". Despite her best

efforts to constantly reinforce the notion of GLBs she was constantly, "being driven

crazy by unnecessary questions and requests [such as] Do I have to do a border? Do

I have to stick this in?; Do I have to have a heading?; So-and-so has my ruler!"

(Boyle, 2002, p. 78).

Almost in desperation she resorted to using what Hynes (1992) described as a

"Dirty Trick" because she felt that her students were happy to simply approach their

work in an unthinking way and, from their perspective, completing tasks equated

with being a good student; thinking about learning was not an important aspect of

their "job" as students. The use of a "Dirty Trick" was powerful for it showed the stu-

dents the importance of questioning their own thinking. Yet Boyle still felt frustrated

for her need was to have "something that would work in her class" but be ongoing

and continually reinforce the notion of GLBs. She found a possibility through the

work of another PAVOT teacher (Pinnis, 2002) and introduced L-Files (Learning

Files) in the following manner:

●Each student was presented with their own L files booklet – each page had a

different Good Learning Behaviour on it.

●She told her students that she was concerned that they were not really becoming

good learners so they negotiated a process of achieving "P plates" (Probationary

plates, analogous to those displayed on the cars of Australian drivers when they

first gain a driver's licence).

●When a student displayed 10 of the behaviours twice they would be presented with

a P plate.

589

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

TABLE 40.2 Good Learning Behaviours (GLBs) adapted from Baird and

Northfield, 1992

Seeks assistance Tells the teacher what they do not understand

Checks progress Refers to earlier work before asking for help

Plans work Anticipates and predicts possible outcomes

Reflects on work Makes links between activities and ideas

Links ideas and experiences Offers relevant and personal examples

Develops a view Justif ies opinions

590

●The student had to present their L files to Boyle and have the identified GLB

signed.

This created great interest and immediately the class was thrown into a

frenzy of practising good learning behaviours. At the end of each lesson

5 minutes was set aside for students to come and justify the claim for hav-

ing pages signed – students were planning prior to starting work, asking

good questions, linking to other subjects or their own experience.

(Boyle, 2002, p. 80)

To Boyle's delight, she found that her students'journal responses also began to relate

to good learning behaviours (although some students were not interested in identify-

ing GLBs at all). Yet her learning about teaching journey had not ended for another

breakthrough occurred, as a result of what she described as a disaster, when she

retaught a lesson using a teaching procedure ("the continuum") that had not "worked

properly" for her the first time through.

I felt like I could see them learning; and I had been ready NEVER to do

the continuum activity again after that first disaster. If I had not taken the

risk, and the challenge, to attempt the continuum again so much student

learning would never have occurred. All of what I had attempted to

achieve through introducing the L files books would not have had a

chance to be reflected in this 'disaster'. What a lot I have to learn!

(Boyle, 2002, p. 85)

As a result of Boyle's systematic approach to researching her attempt to enhance

students' metacognitive skills, she developed a powerful list of "teacher knowledge",

crucial to informing her understanding of, and approach to practice. She learned that:

●There are many facets to good teaching but there is a need to share intellectual

control with the students if lessons are to genuinely be successful.

●When students have a need to know, real learning begins.

●"Good" questioning is not always clear to the teacher, but it becomes more

apparent when students actually start asking meaningful questions themselves.

●Students need to be told HOW to do something not just WHAT to do.

●There is often a disparity between what the teacher thinks students understand

and what they do understand and teachers should not make assumptions about

student understanding.

●Students can be independent thinkers and good learners and teachers'expectations

influence this.

●Positive self-esteem in determining self-motivation and a positive attitude to

learning – for both students and teachers – is important.

●Just as teachers need to learn from my (their) perceived 'disasters' by taking risks

so too students need (the opportunity) to learn from experience.

●Research is not a linear path on which all things expected occur at the right time

and in the right place. Learning from research does not mean that generalizations

or undisputable conclusions can be always be made.

JOHN LOUGHRAN

In undertaking research I have realized that once you begin considering

learning along with teaching that teaching and learning are not synony-

mous and that teachers along with students will always be challenged

with, and by, learning. As a teacher, I will forever be challenged to take

risks and ride the roller coaster of learning along with my students.

(Boyle, 2002, p. 87)

Boyle's learning through research impacted on her practice in ways that could not be

as authentic and meaningful had she not chosen to pursue her work in this manner.

No directive to teach for metacognition, no policy document to turn to to direct such

practice could have informed her in ways commensurate with the genuine learning of

this experience. By choosing to be a teacher researcher Boyle not only displayed how

teacher research offers leadership within the profession, but in documenting and dis-

seminating her learning in the way she did, she also illustrated the value of question-

ing taken-for-granted aspects of practice and offered leadership in the risky business

of teaching so that others might begin to identify with, adapt and adjust her approach

to suit their own practice in their own context. That is surely indicative of meaning-

ful leadership.

LEADERSHIP THROUGH CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

In Berry and Milroy's (2002) examination of teaching science for conceptual change,

they address a well-documented image of school science as isolated facts. In so

doing, they construct their work around a series of snapshots from their classes in

order to illustrate different elements of their approach. However, at the heart of their

work is the issue that the existing curriculum documents from which they were to

work were not helpful in constructing teaching episodes that would develop students'

construction of science in meaningful and conceptually important ways, and, that

when they turned to the research literature for help and support, they found precious

little existed.

The snapshots they developed to illustrate how they managed and learnt through

the situation included:

●A Big Comfortable Lie … – Snapshot 1: Exposing the Assumptions.

●Put the Lid back on (it's too tricky) – Snapshot 2: Recognising the responsibility.

●Diagnosis is easy, where's the rest? – Snapshot 3: The research knowledge we

need is missing.

●Exposing themselves – why would they bother? – Snapshot 4: Building an atmos-

phere of trust.

●"Thinking hurts" – why would they bother? – Snapshot 5: Fruitfulness.

●Sorting out words and meaning – Snapshot 6: Learning to clearly 'speak'.

●"Last lesson Laura made the point …" – Snapshot 7: Learning to really listen.

●Tie them to a strong idea (and come back to the idea not the label) – Snapshot 8:

Attaching labels.

●What is the smallest bit? – Snapshot 9: Making the abstract concrete.

●Taking time and making links – Snapshot 10: Revisitation.

591

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

592

These headings certainly suggest a great deal about the process of curriculum

development in terms of a coherent approach to questioning that which the curriculum

might contain, how it might be structured and why, and the importance of views

about teaching and learning that need to be apprehended if the curriculum is to be

implemented in ways congruent with the purposes and intentions that influence its

construction. So in one sense, these snapshots illustrate a form of teacher knowledge

that captures the essence of their experience, however; the context in which this

knowledge is applicable needs some explanation.

Throughout their study, Berry and Milroy illustrated how schools contain both

'enhancers' and 'frustrators' for progress and development in teaching and learning

and interestingly, one of the important frustrators was the lack of appropriate support

materials; interesting when one considers what would be expected to go hand in hand

with curriculum documents. They were working to initiate conceptual change in their

students' approach to learning science yet this became a source of frustration as much

as it was an inspiration. They were unable to find relevant classroom translations of a

conceptual change approach or resources that specifically addressed the kinds of

engagement with content necessary for such teaching; yet most prescribed curriculum

documents suggested that such teaching was relatively unproblematic and would not

only be manageable but also 'expected'.

Their honest and insightful study highlights that attempting to teach science in a

constructivist manner and, focussing on developing conceptual understanding in

students, is, "a messy and muddy business [and that although it is] one that feels

exciting and worthwhile. It is truly the swamp of real practice" (p. 218). This is an

issue that needs to be fully apprehended by curriculum planners and writers, for it is

the importance of this issue of the uncertainty; the problematic, and the grappling

with ever changing issues and concerns that makes policy advice and curriculum

support material so difficult to develop. Failure to recognize this situation only tends to

exacerbate the divide between the expectations and the realities of classroom teaching

and learning; Berry and Milroy certainly highlight this issue in a powerful way in their

study and offer a strong example of leadership through curriculum development.

LEADING THROUGH PROFESSIONAL LEARNING

Osler and Flack (2002) offer insights into the nature of teaching and learning through

professional learning and the impact that such learning has through a reflective

account of their experiences as: teachers; learners; professional learning providers;

role-models; and, teacher researchers. Their story is initially portrayed through a

fable – tales from the Poppy patch.

In a small patch amongst many others grew a poppy. She had always

been a happy poppy. Happy with her friends and enjoying what she

did. Just the same, she was inquisitive about the way things worked in

other places for other poppies. So it gave her great pleasure when

another poppy that shared her curiosity began to grow right beside her.

JOHN LOUGHRAN

Together these two friends looked upwards and outwards from their part

of the world.

It had been a great time for growing. The two poppies were thriving. They

had learned to organise and manage the nutrients from the familiar,

comfortable earth around them, and lately they had discovered how to

get more energy and nourishment from the sun way beyond their own

small patch.

The sun was available for all the poppies but sometimes the two friends

needed to actively seek the best position to get the most from its rays. It

surprised them a little to find that they had grown tall and that they now

had a different view of things. At the same time though it was exciting

because they could see from their poppy patch clear across to the other

poppy patches that were nearby. The poppies over there looked much the

same but different enough for them to wonder about what they did and

how they got to be that way. The two poppies discovered that they could

be seen by the poppies from the other patch and that they could call out

and ask them questions. The distant poppies were generous about sharing

their different knowledge and they would respond and give them great

insights about their world. It was interesting and stimulating and gave the

two friends plenty to talk about and reflect on. Life in their own patch now

became more interesting because they could see it through different eyes.

On the other hand, their old friends in their poppy patch looked just as

they always had and sometimes the two poppies forgot that others didn't

know what they knew and couldn't see what they saw, and that was why

they couldn't be any different.

Now unfortunately, because the poppies were tall they didn't have the sup-

port of the bunch around them, they felt fragile and very vulnerable to the

elements. The whispering breezes from all directions seemed extra strong

as they blew across the poppy patch where they stood so tall. At times they

even feared that the pressure of the winds would cause them to snap and

break. They called for help but their old friends couldn't hear them

because they were used to them being so far away and they didn't expect

them to need their help anyway! Their new friends were not able to help

them much from where they were; though they did offer encouragement.

The two poppies began to envy the safety and security that staying with

the bunch would have given them, but of course they couldn't go back.

Despite the frustration and sadness they felt when they thought of their

friends and what they were missing out on, the tall poppies celebrated the

many joys that their growth was giving them. They were determined to

remain patient, knowing that one-day they would share their new

insights with their old friends. They believed that eventually many would

seek the light and view from where they were, especially when they

realised that growing tall was not undesirable.

593

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

594

Time passed and their earlier fragility lessened as they gained strength

and became tougher. They noticed that some other poppies in other parts

of the patch were taller and because of where those poppies grew and

what their views were, it made the patch far more interesting.

The winds no longer frightened them as they had. One day in a particu-

larly strong wind, the two poppies commented on how strong they felt

and wondered why that was. They looked around and to their delight,

right next to them, were some other poppies. Some of them they knew,

some they didn't, but they all could share the vision of what was beyond

their poppy patch. They too were thriving.

The two poppies were excited at their excitement and at last they could

talk and share and support more of their kind. Best of all they could see

more together. Perhaps their message had not fallen on deaf ears after

all. Surely the winds could not knock down a whole bunch of poppies!

(Osler and Flack, 2002, pp. 223–225)

Osler and Flack present their portrayal through their fable (above), then they dissect

and explain the issues, ideas, problems, dilemmas and successes that emerge through

the fable of the two poppies. They explain how the process of research enriched their

practice as they came to better understand the value and purpose of metacognition;

for both themselves and their students. They also developed a strong sense of com-

mitment to supporting the developing skills of others by sharing their experiences of

their attempts to develop students' learning and their learning about the research

process. In so doing, they became more aware of their own professional growth; how

threatening that can be and how carefully it needs to be managed (an issue barely

noted in the traditional research literature and one which their 'voice'certainly brings

to life in a powerful way through their fable).

A most important outcome of their experience was the way in which, as teacher

researchers, they came to see themselves as sitting between two worlds: "as teacher-

researchers we can access the worlds of teachers and academics" (p. 245). Their

account illustrates how through their professional journey they experienced the

pleasure associated with personal and professional growth, as well as the dilemma of

not knowing where or how to 'fit in'.

Their most engaging account of their teacher research journey illustrates the prob-

lems created for teachers as leaders when that leadership is through a well informed

understanding of practice as a result of learning through teacher research.

Understanding the learning about practice through the teacher research process itself

then emerges as crucial to success and to creating possibilities for genuine educa-

tional change.

Leadership in teaching is important and what it means personally and professionally

could not be understood – nor portrayed – were it not for the efforts of teachers such as

Osler & Flack because of their valuable insights from a teacher researcher perspective;

a perspective that surely influences the expectations and approaches to leadership so

important in supporting the process of educational change. Importantly, the account

JOHN LOUGHRAN

of their journey demonstrates the inherent value of recognising that teachers have a

privileged position within the classroom and that their understanding of their work is

best driven from within that context, not solely from the educational bureaucracy

where the focus is often on a different 'bigger picture'of organisation, direction and

control. It could well be argued, that which Osler & Flack demonstrate, is that one of

the great disjunctions in teaching and learning is not so much between theory and

practice, but between genuine educational autonomy and bureaucratic control. Their

study truly demonstrates that educational leadership hinges on teachers' professional

learning.

CONCLUSION

In the detailed account of his return to school teaching, Jeff Northfield, an experi-

enced teacher educator and educational researcher drew attention to the need for a

wider understanding of the work of teachers and the influences on students'learning

(see Opening the Classroom Door: Teacher, Researcher, Learner; Loughran and

Northfield, 1996). He noted that, "As education continues to go through changes and

restructuring, often implemented by those without an understanding of the complexity

of roles associated with teachers and students … a clearer understanding of what is

happening in schools [is needed] … The PEEL project … affirms the work of teachers

and provides encouragement and ideas for those who are concerned about improving

their teaching and their students' learning outcomes" (p. 4). Just as PEEL led the way

for Northfield to re-examine his practice and knowledge of practice so too it has

offered leadership in encouraging others to develop through PAVOT.

PAVOT teachers (as the accounts above illustrate) have demonstrated their leader-

ship within the profession in ways that offer new understandings of the complexity of

teaching and learning and have created new possibilities and opportunities for the

future. In many ways these teachers have actively sought to examine their own devel-

oping knowledge base and have highlighted the professional responsibilities that

accompany such a decision, such that new and valuable ways of offering leadership

and knowledge to the educational community have emerged.

The work of teacher researchers (through the selected examples briefly reviewed

in this chapter) offers a compelling argument for placing greater emphasis on devel-

oping and valuing a deeper understanding of teaching and learning and does so by

addressing the theory-practice gap in a meaningful way. The exemplars used in this

chapter have been selected in order to highlight the importance and value of

focussing on the issues, concerns and dilemmas that teachers face in their own class-

rooms such that appropriate ways of understanding and addressing these concerns,

issues and dilemmas are able to be demonstrated for the important users of the

knowledge (teachers) gained through such valuable work.

Generally, a prevailing stereotype is that teachers are not seen to be teaching if

they are not in front of their classes doing 'teaching'. Importantly, teacher

researchers offer tangible examples of leadership by offering so much more, and in

so doing, offer a more rounded conceptualization of the work of teachers in ways that

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TEACHERS AS LEADERS

596

can lead to major gains in the knowledge of teaching itself, which ultimately, must

lead to better learning outcomes for students.

Leadership through teachers as researchers is vitally important to both the worlds

of theory and practice and offers real possibilities for enhancing educational outcomes

for all concerned.

REFERENCES

Baird, J. R. and Mitchell, I. J. (eds) (1986) Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning: An Australian

Case Study – the PEEL project. Melbourne: Monash University Printery.

Baird, J. R. and Northfield, J. R. (eds) (1992) Learning from the PEEL Experience. Melbourne: Monash

University Printery.

Berry, A., and Milroy, P. (2002) Changes that Matter, in John Loughran, Ian Mitchell and Judie Mitchell

(eds), Learning from Teacher Research. New York: Teachers College Press, pp. 196–221.

Boyle, L. (2002) Disasters and Metacognition in the SOSE Classroom, in John Loughran, Ian Mitchell and

Judie Mitchell (eds), Learning from Teacher Research. New York: Teachers College Press,

pp. 74–88.

Brookfield, S. D. (1995) Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dewey, J. (1929) The Sources for a Science of Education. New York: Liveright.

Hynes, D. (1992) Theory into Practice, in John Baird and Ian Mitchell (eds) Improving the Quality of

Teaching and Learning: An Australian case study – the PEEL project (3rd edition). Melbourne:

Monash University Printery, pp. 21–32.

Loughran, J. J. (1999) Professional Learning for Teachers: A Growing Concern. The Journal of In-Service

Education, vol. 25, 2, pp. 261–272.

Loughran, J. J. and Northfield, J. R. (1996) Opening the Classroom Door: Teacher, Researcher, Learner.

London: Falmer Press.

Lytle, S. L. and Cochran-Smith, J. (1992) Teacher Research as a Way of Knowing. Harvard Educational

Review, vol. 62, 4, pp. 447–474.

Mitchell, I. J. and Mitchell J. A. (eds). (1997) Stories of Reflective Teaching: A Book of PEEL Cases.

Melbourne: Monash University; PEEL Publishing.

Osler, J. and Flack, J. (2002) Tales from the Poppy Patch, in John Loughran, Ian Mitchell and Judie

Mitchell (eds), Learning from Teacher Research. New York: Teachers College Press, pp. 222–245.

Pinnis, G. (2002) The L files: Motoring Towards Metacognition in the Classroom, in John Loughran, Ian

Mitchell and Judie Mitchell (eds), Learning from Teacher Research. New York: Teachers College

Press, pp. 152–170.

Schön, D. A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic

Books.

Schön, D. A. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and

Learning in the Professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Swan, S. and White, R. T. (1994) The Thinking Books. London: Falmer Press.

Wallace, J. (2003) Learning About Teacher Learning: Reflections of a Science Educator, in John Wallace

and John Loughran (eds), Leadership and Professional Learning in Science Education: New

Possibilities for Enhancing Teacher Learning. London: Routledge, Falmer, pp. 1–16.

JOHN LOUGHRAN

THE FASHIONING OF A NEW ACCOUNTABILITY AGENDA

There are a number of key events which have changed forever the post war environment in

which teachers teach and students learn in many countries. Supported by claims of

falling standards relative to those in competitor nations which are deemed to be incom-

patible with the need to increase economic competitiveness and social cohesion, suc-

cessive governments have attempted to re-orientate the strong liberal-humanist

traditions of schooling, characterised by a belief in the intrinsic, non-instrumental value

of education towards a more functional view characterised by competency based,

results driven teaching (Helsby, 1999, p. 16), payment by results and forms of indirect

rule from the centre (Lawn, 1996). It is important to recognise that what has happened

to education is one outcome of a larger ideological debate on the costs and management

of the public services in general. In England, for example, education as a public service

was the test bed for a raft of radical reforms from the mid 70's which were born of polit-

ical 'new right' ideology and economic pragmatism and which challenged the post

Second World War monopoly which professionals in education, health, and the social

services had held. For education, as for all the public services, what we are witnessing still:

'… is a struggle among different stakeholders over the definition of teacher professional-

ism and professionality for the twenty first century …' (Whitty et al ., 1998, p. 65).

As part of this, there have been new limits placed on teachers'autonomy. Policies

of decentralisation of the management of budgets, plant, staffing, student access and

curriculum and assessment (Bullock and Thomas, 1997) have been accompanied by

centrally determined and monitored measures of pupil achievement.

These have had the effect of restricting the conditions under which teachers

work, putting into place a system which rewards those who successfully comply with

government directives and who reach government targets and punishes those who do not.

In the USA, for example, a high stakes testing regime has been established in order

to ensure that schools engage in a State determined improvement agenda for all stu-

dents to meet a prescribed level of achievement on State authorized tests. The message

is clear: improve or be taken over or closed down. In a recent wide ranging evaluation

over 3 years of the effects of such high-stakes testing on high schools in Texas and

Kentucky, New York and Vermont, Siskin and her colleagues found that although

they have provided for a new tightening up of the curriculum in certain areas and a

597

CHRISTOPHER DAY

41. SCHOOL REFORM AND TRANSITIONS

IN TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM AND IDENTITY1

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 597–612.

1 This was first published in the International Journal of Educational Research , Vol. 37, No. 8, 2004,

pp. 677–692, Elsevier Ireland Limited.

598

new sense of purpose in teaching, the net effects have been the massive growth of

expensive measures of testing and curriculum validation of traditional core subjects

at the expense of those which are not. Whilst teachers and teacher unions have

welcomed the introduction and development of new standards for curriculum and

teaching they are reported to have been dismayed by the quality and applicability of

the new tests which form the basis for judging the value of their work. Moreover, the

high stakes testing measures do not yet appear to have contributed to improvements

in pupil achievements. Indeed, many more students in urban and high poverty

districts will be denied qualification as high-school graduates (Carnoy et al ., 2003).

Teachers in most countries across the world are all experiencing similar government

interventions in the form of national curricula, national tests, criteria for measuring

the quality of schools and the publication of these on the internet in order to raise

standards and promote more parental choice. Although school contexts continue to

mediate the short term effects of the intensification of work which is a consequence

of such reforms (Apple, 1986), the persisting effect is to erode teachers' autonomy

and challenge teachers' individual and collective professional and personal identities.

Furthermore, reforms of this kind are being reinforced by changes in pre-service

teacher training through which students now must meet the measurable requirements

of prescribed curricula and sets of narrowly conceived, instrumentally oriented

competencies in order to succeed.

Although reforms in schools are different in every country in their content, direction

and pace, they have five common factors. They:

●are proposed because governments believe that by intervening to change the condi-

tions under which students learn, they can accelerate improvements, raise standards

of achievement and somehow increase economic competitiveness;

●address implicit worries of governments concerning a perceived fragmentation of

personal and social values in society;

●challenge teachers' existing practices, resulting in periods of at least temporary

destablisation;

●result in an increased work load for teachers;

●do not always pay attention to teachers' identities – arguably central to motivation

efficacy, commitment, job satisfaction and effectiveness.

Prior to this new work order, a compact had existed between government, parents

and schools in which, by and large, teachers were trusted to do a good job with min-

imum direct intervention by government into matters of school governance, the

school curriculum, teaching and learning and assessment. In England and Wales, for

example, quality assurance (a term not yet invented in the 70's) was provided by Her

Majesty's Inspectors (HMI), a relatively benign group of ex-teachers and lecturers

who had become civil servants and who were charged with monitoring and main-

taining standards through their connoisseurship judgements on quality (this was

also the case in many other West European countries). Local Education Authorities

(the equivalent of School Districts) were still responsible for curriculum and

professional support and employed either School Advisers or School Inspectors –

consisting, like HMI, of ex-heads and senior staff – to achieve this and monitor

schools. Apart from a minimalist core curriculum, LEAs and schools were able to

CHRISTOPHER DAY

exercise considerable choice with regard to the balance of the curriculum taught,

(although most of secondary education conformed to a university entrance driven

national examination system for students at age 16 and 18) and this was reflected in

different opportunities for students who lived in different LEAs. Colleges of

Education, responsible for providing the bulk of new teachers, also exercised choice

in their pre-service work, as did Universities in their post-graduate 1-year courses.

Significantly, continuing professional development (C.P.D.) opportunities were

largely left to the choice of individual teachers; teacher development was a term

widely used; and the curriculum in school was 'taught' not 'delivered'. Curriculum

developments in schools were initiated and managed locally or by a national

'Schools Council', funded by government but governed by a partnership between

teachers' professional associations and government. 'Value added', 'accountabil-

ity', 'training', 'performativity' and 'performance management' were not yet even

twinkles in the eyes of the policy makers. The nation's primary (elementary) schools

were the envy of the world and headteachers were the power in their own kingdoms,

free to govern as they wished.

The 'new public management'(Clarke and Newman, 1997, p. ix) illustrated in the

discussion so far, has opened schools to market pressures through parental choice,

given greater financial autonomy increased expectations that they will improve on a

yearly basis in terms of both teacher and pupil performance through independent

external inspection, pupil testing, annual performance management reviews of

individual teachers and associated annual school development plans and target

setting. In some countries league tables of results have been introduced and made

public; parents are encouraged to choose the school to which they send their chil-

dren; school governors (lay people) have been given more authority as schools have

become locally managed and centrally accountable. To ensure that schools comply

with these innovations, regular school inspections have become more prescriptive

(for instance, 'HMI' became 'OFSTED', The Office for Standards in Education)

with judgements based upon a national assessment framework. In England, there

has been the 'naming' and 'shaming' of schools which are categorised as being in

need of 'special measures'. Some schools have been closed. Successful schools

have been awarded 'Specialist', 'Lighthouse' or 'Beacon' status and given more

resources. And for schools with a negative evaluation, follow-up procedures have

been installed, putting more pressure upon the teachers. Among the negative conse-

quences of these (and other) centrally imposed initiatives have been an increase in

teachers' work time, low morale, and a continuing crisis in teacher recruitment and

retention, especially in those schools which are in challenging socio-economic

contexts. Alongside (though not necessarily associated with) these, has been a rise

in dissatisfaction of their school experiences by a significant number of pupils,

expressed in increases in absenteeism, behavioural problems in classrooms and in

the less easily measurable but well documented alienation from formal learning of

many who remain. Ball (2001) has described this central drive for quality and

improvement as being embedded in three technologies – the market, managerialism

and 'performativity' (Lyotard, 1979) – and placed them in distinct contrast to the

post war public Welfarist State.

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DISCOURSES OF PROFESSIONALISM

Professionalism has been the subject of many studies over the last century. Adopting a

macro perspective, Andy Hargreaves has presented the development of professionalism

as passing through four historical ages in many countries – the 'pre-professional'(man-

agerially demanding but technically simple in terms of pedagogy); the 'autonomous'

(marked by a challenge to the uniform view of pedagogy, teacher individualism in and

wide areas for discretionary decision taking); 'collegial' (the building of strong collab-

orative cultures alongside role expansion, diffusion and intensification); and the

'post-professional' (where teachers struggle to counter centralized curricula, testing

regimes and external surveillance, and the economic imperatives of marketisation)

(Hargreaves, 2000a, p 153). Essentially, his work and that of other researchers (Helsby,

1996; Robertson, 1996; Talbert and McLaughlin, 1996) illustrates the growth of chal-

lenges from governments to teachers'agency, and a contestation of control of curricu-

lum content, pedagogy and assessment historically associated with teacher

professionalism. From a different perspective, researchers have situated teachers

within, for example, debates about 'restricted' and 'extended' (Hoyle, 1974), referring

to the extent to which they engage in learning; and proletarianisation, intensification

and bureaucratisation (Ozga 1995; Campbell and Neill, 1994; Helsby, 1996, 1999),

referring to the extent to which teachers' work has been affected by external prescrip-

tive policy interventions which result in less control or autonomy of classroom decision

making, a diminished sense of 'agency' (Gilroy and Day, 1993).

Reforms have changed what it means to be a teacher as the focus of control has

shifted from the individual to the system managers and contract has replaced covenant

(Bernstein, 1996). Yet, 'being a professional' is still seen as an expectation placed upon

teachers which distinguishes them from other groups of workers. Professionalism in

this sense has been associated with having a strong technical culture (knowledge base);

service ethic (commitment to serving clients' needs); professional commitment (strong

individual and collective identities); and professional autonomy (control over class-

room practice) (Etzioni, 1969; Larson, 1977, Talbert and McLaughlin, 1996). The

emphasis on corporate management which many reforms produce has, however,

resulted in a sea change in the nature of professionalism. Each teacher must now be:

'… professional who clearly meets corporate goals, set elsewhere, man-

ages a range of students well and documents their achievements and

problems for public accountability purposes. The criteria of the success-

ful professional in this corporate model is one who works efficiently and

effectively in meeting the standardised criteria set for the accomplish-

ment of both students and teachers, as well as contributing to the

school's formal accountability processes'

(Brennan, 1996, p. 22).

Sachs (2003) identifies two contrasting forms of professional identity:

●Entrepreneurial, which she identifies with efficient, responsible, accountable

teachers who demonstrate compliance to externally imposed policy imperatives

CHRISTOPHER DAY

with consistently high quality teaching as measured by externally set performance

indicators. This identity may be characterised as being individualistic, competitive,

controlling and regulative, externally defined, standards led.

●Activist, which she sees as driven by a belief in the importance of mobilising teach-

ers in the best interests of student learning and improving the conditions in which

this can occur. In this identity, teachers will be primarily concerned with creating

and putting into place standards and processes which give students democratic

experiences.'

(Sachs, 2003).

The former, she argues, is the desired product of the performativity, managerialist

agendas while the latter suggests inquiry oriented, collaborative classrooms and

schools in which teaching is related to broad societal ideals and values and in which

the purposes of teaching and learning transcend the narrow instrumentalism of current

reform agendas.

As a result of analysis and critiquing of different discourses of professionalism and

professionalisation in a post modern age, Hargreaves and Goodson propose seven

principles which provide an alternative to current reform agendas:

●Increased opportunity and responsibility to exercise discretionary

judgement over the issues of teaching, curriculum and care that

affect one's students;

●Opportunities and expectations to engage with the moral and social

purposes and value of what teachers teach, along with major curricu-

lum and assessment matters in which these purposes are embedded;

●Commitment to working with colleagues in collaborative cultures of

help and support as a way of using shared expertise to solve ongoing

problems of professional practice, rather than engaging in joint work

as a motivational device to implement the external mandates of others;

●Occupational heteronomy rather than self-protective autonomy, where

teachers work authoritatively yet openly and collaboratively with other

partners in the wider community (especially parents and students

themselves), who have a significant stake in students' learning;

●A commitment to active care and not just anodyne service for stu-

dents. Professionalism must in this sense acknowledge and embrace

the emotional as well as the cognitive dimensions of teaching, and

also recognise the skills and dispositions that are essential to com-

mitted and effective caring;

●A self-directed search and struggle for continuous learning related

to one's own expertise and standards of practice, rather than compli-

ance with the enervating obligations of endless change demanded by

others (often under the guise of continuing learning or improvement);

●The creation and recognition of high task complexity with levels of

status and reward appropriate to such complexity.

(Hargreaves and Goodson, 1996, pp. 20–21).

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SCHOOL REFORM AND TRANSITIONS

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Professionals themselves from these perspectives, are said to have various, 'core moral

purposes' and ethical codes (Jackson et al ., 1993, Hansen, 1995, Pels, 1999, Day,

2000a), pursuing teaching as an art, craft (technical) and scientific endeavour (Brown

and McIntyre, 1992, Galton et al ., 1999, Friedson, 2001). Such higher moral purposes

of teachers (Socket, 1993) are under threat by teaching and learning agendas which

focus upon improving schools and raising student achievement within a restricted,

measurable range of subjects, abilities or competencies. Teachers' broader identities,

central to the exercise of the kinds of professionalism described above, are being

challenged. This new age has been called post-professionalism (Ball, 2003), since

teachers and other public services workers succeed only by satisfying and complying

with others' definitions of their work. The ethical-professional identities that were

dominant in schools are being replaced by 'entrepreneurial-competitive'identities.

PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL IDENTITIES

…the self is a crucial element in the way teachers themselves construe

the nature of the job.

(Kelchtermans and Vandenberghe, 1994, p. 47)

Much research literature demonstrates that events and experiences in the personal

lives of teachers are intimately linked to the performance of their professional

roles (Ball and Goodson, 1985; Goodson and Hargreaves, 1996). In her research on

the 'realities of teachers' work, Acker (1999) describes the considerable pressures on

teaching staff, not just arising in their work but also from their personal lives.

Complications in personal lives can become bound up with problems at work. Woods

et al. (1997, p. 152) argue that ' teaching is a matter of values. People teach because

they believe in something. They have an image of the "good society".' Kelchtermans

(1993) suggests that the professional self, like the personal self, evolves over time

and that it consists of five interrelated parts: Self-image : how teachers describe them-

selves though their career stories; Self-esteem : the evolution of self as a teacher, how

good or otherwise as defined by self or others; Job-motivation: what makes teachers

choose, remain committed to or leave the job; Task perception: how teachers define

their jobs; Future perspective: teachers' expectations for the future development

of their jobs (Kelchtermans, 1993, pp. 449–450). So teachers' identities are closely

bound with their professional and personal values and aspirations. Where

teachers are opposed to the values embodied in imposed change it is difficult for

them to adjust to new roles and work patterns (Woods et al ., 1997). Osborn et al.

(1996), in a large scale study of English primary schooling, found that over the

8 years of the study, while some tensions were experienced in adapting to the new

values in the reforms, the main response of the teachers was one of incorporation

of the changes. However, Helsby (1999) in a study of secondary schools, and

Menter et al . (1997) in a primary school study, found that, at least temporarily, many

teachers' professional identities, in which their values were embedded, were under-

mined by the reforms.

CHRISTOPHER DAY

Teachers' sense of professional, personal identity is a key variable in their motivation,

job fulfilment, commitment and self efficacy; and these will themselves be affected

by the extent to which teachers'own needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness

are met. Reforms have an impact upon teachers'identities and because these are both

cognitive and emotional, create reactions which are both rational and non rational.

Thus, the ways and extent to which reforms are received, adopted, adapted and sustained

or not sustained will be influenced by the extent to which they challenge existing

identities.

Several researchers (Nias, 1989, 1996; Nias et al. 1992; Hargreaves, 1994;

Sumsion, 2002) have noted that teacher identities are not only constructed from the

more technical aspects of teaching (i.e. classroom management, subject knowledge

and pupil test results) but, also as van den Berg (2002) explains: '… can be concep-

tualised as the result of an interaction between the personal experiences of teachers

and the social, cultural, and institutional environment in which they function on a

daily basis'. Reporting on research with teachers in The Netherlands, Beijaard

(1995) illustrated the different patterns of change in teacher identities:

Mary remembers her satisfaction about her own teaching in the beginning

because she experienced it as a challenge. This challenge disappeared

when she had to teach many subjects to overcrowded classes. The second

lowest point in her storyline was caused by her time-consuming study

and private circumstances at home. Now she is reasonably satisfied, due

to a pupil centred method she has developed together with some of her

colleagues. Peter is currently very satisfied about his own teaching; he

qualifies his present teaching style as very adequate. In the beginning of

his career, however, it was very problematic for him to maintain order. In

this period he considered leaving the profession several times. The second

lowest point in his story line refers to private circumstances and to prob-

lems in the relationship with colleagues

(Beijaard, 1995, p. 288).

Here we see the ways in which personal and professional environments affect teachers'

identities both positively and negatively. This interplay between the private and public,

the personal and professional lives of teachers is a key factor in their sense of identity

and job satisfaction and, by inference, in their capacity to maintain their effectiveness

as teachers. In Mary's case, increases in size and role diversification and intensifica-

tion decreased the keen challenge she had felt on her entry into teaching; in the case

of Peter 'painful beginnings'(Huberman, 1995) had made it difficult even to survive.

Common to both were the times when personal problems in their lives outside the

classroom affected adversely their attitudes to teaching.

The architecture of teachers' professional selves, in other words, is not stable, but

discontinous, fragmented, and subject to change (Day and Hadfield, 1996). This is

not to say that teachers do not themselves in different ways seek and find their own

sense of stability within what appears from the outside to be fragmentary identities.

On the contrary, much empirical research indicates that many find meaning in their

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work through a strong sense of moral purpose. Stronach et al 's (2002) research with

nurses and teachers, like others before it (Nias, 1989; Bowe and Ball, 1992;

Kelchtermans, 1993; Hoyle and John, 1995; Hanlon, 1998; Furlong et al ., 2000;

Friedson, 2001) claims that 'professionalism'is bound up in the discursive dynamics

of professionals attempting to address or redress the dilemmas of the job within

particular cultures (p. 109). Their reading of the professional, 'as mobilizing a com-

plex of occasional identities in response to shifting contexts' (p 117) and their own

data from teachers in six primary schools in England, though limited, and, 'walking

the tightrope of an uncertain being' (p 121), resonates with much other empirical

research on teachers' plurality of roles (Sachs, 2003) within work contexts which are

characterized by fragmentation and discontinuities (Huberman, 1995) and a number

of tensions and dilemmas (Day et al., 2000) within what is generally agreed to be a

hostile external audit policy culture (Power, 1994); and it does add to the considerable

body of existing literature which highlights the complexities and instabilities of

teachers' professional lives, which points to teachers' continuing sense of agency in

their work and which recognizes that, 'excellence can only be motivated, it cannot be

coerced' (p. 132). Yet one omission from the paper is the discussion of the teacher's

personal identities – all the more surprising because its presence shines through in

the teachers' words which are used. If we are to understand teachers'professionalism,

it is necessary to take account of teacher identities, the importance to these of self-

efficacy, motivation, job satisfaction and commitment and the relationship between

these and effectiveness.

There is an unavoidable interrelationship between professional and personal,

cognitive and emotional identities if only because the overwhelming evidence is that

teaching demands significant personal investment of these:

The ways in which teachers form their professional identities are influ-

enced by both how they feel about themselves and how they feel about

their students. This professional identity helps them to position or situate

themselves in relation to their students and to make appropriate and

effective adjustments in their practice and their beliefs about and

engagement with, students

(James-Wilson, 2001, p. 29).

Many writers have argued that teachers derive their job satisfaction from the psychic

rewards of teaching (Lortie, 1975; Rosenholtz, 1989: Hargreaves, 1998a, b, 2000).

Central amongst these is the development of close relationships and emotional

understanding. Despite Riseborough (1981) arguing some time ago that teachers

have to 'feel right' in order to do their job to the best of their abilities, Hargreaves

(1998b) points out that there have been:

few socio-politically informed analyses that put a prime emphasis on

teacher emotions in the context of how teachers'work is organized and

how it is being reorganized through educational reform

(Hargreaves, 1998b, p. 318).

CHRISTOPHER DAY

Yet whilst the new right managerialist agendas now acknowledge the existence of

widespread teacher disenchantment and stress and its effects upon the quality

of teaching and learning, there are no signs that they recognise the crucial effects on

teachers' emotional as well as intellectual identities. It is through our subjective

emotional world that we develop our personal constructs and meanings of our outer

realities and make sense of our relationships and eventually our place in the wider

world (p. 42). In addition, these are also clearly related to our motivation and state of

attention. From a neuroscientific perspective, Le Doux (1998) argues that the emo-

tional brain may act as an intermediary between the thinking brain and the outside

world. There is an interplay between thought and feeling and feeling and memory.

When feelings are ignored, they can act unnoticed and thus have unacknowledged

negative or positive influences.

Our capacity to function intellectually is highly dependent on our emotional state.

When we are preoccupied our minds are literally occupied with something and we

have no space to pay attention, to take in and listen to anything else. When we are

frightened we are more likely to make mistakes. When we feel inadequate we tend to

give up rather than struggle to carry on with the task.

(Salzberger-Wittenberg, 1996, p. 81)

When flooded by our emotional brain, as is the case of multiple reform agendas,

our 'working brain' may have little capacity for attention to hold in mind the facts

necessary for the completion of a task, the acquisition of a concept or the making of

an intelligent decision. The performativity agenda, coupled with the continuing

monitoring of the efficiency with which teachers are expected to implement others'

plans for the kind of curricula and approaches to teaching, learning and assessment, has

five consequences which are likely to reduce rather than increase effectiveness. They:

●threaten teachers' sense of agency;

●implicitly encourage teachers to comply uncritically (eg teach to the test);

●challenge teachers' substantive identity;

●reduce the time teachers have to connect with, care for and attend to the needs of

individual students;

●diminish teachers' sense of motivation, efficacy and job satisfaction.

It is these sources of meaning which reforms that ignore or erode core values de-sta-

bilize, and which can destroy the sense of identity which is at the core of being an

effective professional. Paradoxically, then, imposed reform may in the long term

diminish teachers'capacity to raise standards.

TWO LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH STUDIES:

THE SELF AND PROFESSIONALISM

Constructing, sustaining and renewing identity, then, are essential processes when

implementing school reforms:

…the maintenance of a coherent story about the self is no longer a matter

of occasional fixing if something goes wrong, but it is a continuing

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process in need of continual 'reskilling'. This is deemed necessary in

order to weather transitions that are part and parcel of everyday life

(Biggs, 1999, p. 53).

Two recent research studies provide empirical data about the ways in which reforms are

affecting teacher identities and, therefore, their professionalism. The first, a recently

published report of a cross cultural study which investigated the impact of policy on the

work of secondary school teachers in England, France and Denmark (McNess et al .,

2003) found that in England the perceived demand for delivery of 'performance' had,

'emphasized the managerially effective' in the interests of accountability while ignoring

teachers' deeply rooted commitment to the affective aspects of teaching and learning'

(ibid, p. 243). It drew attention to the increasing body of work which illuminates the

extent to which the social and emotional aspects of teachers' work – the emotional

investment of self – causes them to be vulnerable to policy changes (Hargreaves, 1994;

Nias, 1996; Woods and Jeffrey, 1996; Acker, 1999) which reduce opportunities for them

to exercise creativity and develop caring relationships with their pupils (Pollard et al .,

1994; Woods, 1995; Menter et al ., 1997; Woods et al ., 1997). Using Bernstein's peda-

gogic models (Bernstein, 1996, pp. 57–63), the authors argued that curriculum

pedagogy and assessment had moved from weak to strong classification through the

imposition of a 'highly prescriptive national curriculum' (ibid, p 247) which had deval-

ued 'the professional pedagogic skills of the teacher'(ibid, p 248). This had undermined

the joint negotiation and close personal relationships between the teacher and pupil in

which teachers' sense of personal identity in all countries is so bound up.

In Denmark, though reforms are different, the relatively loose national curriculum

framework has meant more preparation time for differentiated work with a perceived

'effect on social cohesion and cooperative working' (ibid, p. 253) and the recent

availability of children's test results on the internet indicates further movement

towards a perfomativity agenda. In terms of teacher professionalism (in England), as

in these countries, the research suggests that the role of teachers as knowledge

constructors has been eroded, that autonomy in classroom decision making has been

constrained, that their roles have become more instrumental and that their worth is

judged principally on their success in complying to central agendas. In Norway, too,

there is now national testing, national measures for judging the quality of schools,

and increased competition between schools as privately financed schools are encour-

aged (Welle-Strand and Tjeldvoll, 2002). Similar changes have been reported in

Finland (Rinne et al., 2002) and Sweden (Lundahl, 2002). In short, ownership of the

three key components of professionalism identified by Furlong et al . (2000, p. 4) –

knowledge, autonomy and responsibility – is being contested.

These findings mirror those emerging from the VITAE project (a 4-year on-going

study of variations in teachers' work and lives and their effects on pupils). This proj-

ect conducted a survey with 1400 teachers and is working with 300 teachers at dif-

ferent phases of their careers in 100 primary and secondary schools in England over

a 4-year period. Fewer than half the sample reported that their motivation was high,

and one-in-five secondary teachers reported low motivation. The level of motivation

CHRISTOPHER DAY

varied with years of experience. It was highest in the early years of teaching and then

it declined, particularly in those with more that 16 years of experience. For around

half only, motivation had increased over the past 3 years. For the others, it had

declined. Half the teachers reported high levels of stress, and nearly two thirds of teach-

ers in one disadvantaged LEA reported that they were consistently and frequently

affected in their work by stress. The majority of teachers also perceived both a loss in

time to respond to the needs of individual pupils and to teach creatively (Day et al .,

2003). In the first round of interviews, questions were asked about the effects of policy,

practice, pupils and personal biography. Analysis of these showed that the over-

whelming number of responses centred upon the self – in particular the effects of

reforms on: 1) motivation and commitment; 2) beliefs, ideologies and personal and

professional values; and 3) efficacy and job satisfaction. It was clear that these were

core elements of the teachers'professional identities.

When asked what helped them to be an effective teacher, the respondents pointed

to these core elements and to the emotional support of school cultures, individual

colleagues, social relationships in the staffroom, a sense of being valued and that they

were 'making a difference' in pupils' lives – a sense of agency. Many spoke of

reforms as undermining their professionalism. They 'put you into a straightjacket',

'gave less time for creativity', 'take time away from teaching to kids'needs', 'de-skill',

make it impossible to 'follow up interests of pupils'. There was 'too much filling in

paper at the expense of teaching'.

That's why people don't enjoy teaching so much because there isn't that

opportunity to put something of yourself into your classroom.

Further issues which arose from the survey and interviews must be taken into

account in discussing changes in professionalism. First, there were differences

between those teachers (the majority) who had entered teaching before the reforms

and those who had entered during them (the latter were more positive about their

impact). Whilst more experienced teachers were critical of the erosion of opportunities

to exercise their moral purposes and contribute as educators to the education of the

whole student, younger teachers seemed to be more content to exercise their peda-

gogical skills within what was perceived by their older colleagues as the narrower

range of discretionary decision-making which was a consequence of the reforms. In

short, two different kinds of professional identity are now being able to be distin-

guished in the reform landscape: one is located in a broader vision for professional

identity which includes some responsibilities for care of the cognitive, affective,

social and societal parts of the education of students by professionals who exercise

broad moral purposes in their work; and the other focuses primarily upon teachers

whose success is measured primarily through their ability to educate students to pass

tests. This suggests that there may be an evolving transition in teacher professional-

ism towards the more instrumental, technical. It is clear, also, that the strength of the

effects of reform upon identity are mediated not only by the nature of the reform itself

but also by teachers' personal sense of vocationalism and the leadership, cultures, and

pupil populations of the schools in which they work.

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608

CONCLUSION

If the quality of the education provided to students is to be maintained or improved

in the face of the increasing pressures and demands from a variety of stakeholders,

teachers must be assisted in sustaining their enthusiasm for, and identification with

their work which demands considerable investment of their cognitive and emotional

selves (Louis, 1998; Day, 2000b). Teacher commitment has been found to be a criti-

cal predictor of teachers' work performance, absenteeism, retention, burnout and

turnover, as well as having an important influence on students' motivation, achieve-

ment, attitudes towards learning and being at school (Firestone, 1996; Graham, 1996;

Louis, 1998; Tsui and Cheng, 1999). As a consequence of the new monitoring,

inspection and public accountability systems, in addition to the increased intensifi-

cation of work through added bureaucratic tasks directly associated with the perfor-

mativity agenda, reforms have promoted high degrees of uncertainty, instability and

vulnerability for teachers (Ball, 2001, p. 7). Kelchtermans'(1996) study of the career

stories of ten-experienced primary school teachers revealed two recurring themes:

stability in the job: a need to maintain the status quo, having achieved ambition, led

to satisfaction; vulnerability to the judgements of colleagues, the headteacher and

those outside the school gates e.g. parents, inspectors, media reports which might be

based exclusively on measurable student achievements. As vulnerability increased,

so they tended towards passivity and conservatism in teaching. Surprisingly,

however, the relationship between external reform, teachers' commitment, identity,

the environments in which they work and the quality and effectiveness of their work

is absent from the policies of those who believe that it is possible to steer the daily

activities in the classroom from the centre. Nor has it been the subject of extensive

research.

The implications for those wishing to change how teachers construe, construct and

conduct their work are clear. Individuals' commitment to such change is essential.

Changing operational definitions of professionalism requires working closely with

teachers and their individual emotional and intellectual identities because unless

these are addressed reform is unlikely to succeed in the longer term. This suggests

rebuilding professionalism through sustained, critical dialogue, mutual trust and

respect. In a multidisciplinary review of the theoretical and empirical literature on

trust spanning four decades, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2000), highlight the need to

pay attention to trust, particularly in terms of change. They found that trust is:

●a means of reducing uncertainty in situations of independence

●necessary for effective cooperation and communication

●the foundation for cohesive and productive relationships

●a 'lubricant' greasing the way for efficient operations when people have confi-

dence in other people's work and deeds (p549)

●a means of reducing the complexities of transactions and exchanges more quickly

and economically than other means of managing organisational life.

Conversely, distrust, 'provokes feelings of anxiety and insecurity … self protec-

tion … minimising (of) vulnerability … withholding information and … pretence of

even deception to protect their interests'(ibid. p. 550).

CHRISTOPHER DAY

Identity, so important in the lives of teachers, is not, then, something which is fixed

or static. It is an amalgam of personal biography, culture, social influence and insti-

tutional values which may change according to role and circumstance. It is often,

'less stable, less convergent and less coherent than is often implied in the research lit-

erature' (MacLure, 1993, p. 320). Yet sustaining a positive sense of identity to sub-

ject, relationships and roles is important to maintaining motivation, self-esteem or

self efficacy, job satisfaction, and commitment to teaching; and although research

shows consistently that identity is affected, positively and negatively, by classroom

experiences, organisational culture and situation specific events which may threaten

existing norms and practices (Nias, 1989; Kelchtermans, 1993; Flores, 2002), suc-

cessive reform implementation strategies have failed to address its key role in effec-

tive teaching. Reform which addresses key issues of professional identity,

commitment and change is more likely to meet the standards raising recruitment and

retention agendas more efficiently and more effectively than current efforts which,

though well intentioned, appear from empirical data to be failing to connect with the

long term learning and achievement needs of teachers and students.

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CHRISTOPHER DAY

INTRODUCTION

There are countless representations of versions of teacher research, ranging from the

action research model developed by Kemmis and McTaggart (1988), the teacher as

critical researcher (Kincheloe, 2003 ) to the teacher as reflective practitioner (Schon,

1995). This chapter is not a polemic that critiques these various representations in

order to mount a case for my own particular version. Rather, I want to particularise

these different accounts within my own context, a context that includes myself as an

ex-primary school teacher and a early career researcher, and the teachers that I have

worked with during research projects over the last 2 or 3 years. Part of my interest in

developing research partnerships with teachers stems from my own dissatisfaction

with professional development or 'inservice' that was presented to me when I was

teaching, as holding a one-size fits all solution to any given teaching 'problem'.

Given this dissatisfaction, I am therefore reluctant to write a chapter that espouses a

particular method or solution to questions about how to do research as a teacher.

Instead, I begin this chapter with an overview of what is important to me to consider

when working with teachers as co-researchers. The second part of the chapter describes

some examples, localised and contextual as they are, of what seems to have been suc-

cessful in my own work with teachers. The final section explores some of the problems

that I have encountered, and a discussion of possible reasons for these problems.

TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS

I am interested in the possibilities of engaging teachers as researchers who actively

and agentically participate in projects that will lead to effective and meaningful

changes in their practices. By positioning teachers as researchers I recognise the

complexity of teachers' work and the theoretical underpinnings that inform their

practices, while also recognising that 'teachers as researchers' has become one of

many slogans infiltrating contemporary educational discourses. As Zeichner signals:

In the last decade, the slogans of 'reflective teaching', 'action research',

'research-based' and 'inquiry-oriented' teacher education have been

embraced by both teacher educators and educational researchers

throughout the world.

(Zeichner, 1994, p. 9).

My use of these slogans then is somewhat paradoxical. I signal my knowledge of the

slogans while at the same time I want to disrupt the emptiness of the slogan – to point

613

EILEEN HONAN

42. TEACHERS ENGAGING IN RESEARCH AS

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 613–624.

614

out the richly complex work that teachers do when they act as researchers into their

own practice.

The embrace of slogans in the 1980s and 1990s that Zeichner refers to has become

a tight bearhug in the 21st Century. These terms have become commonplace not only

in education faculties across Australia and other parts of the world, but within educa-

tion systems and schools. The slogans have infiltrated political discourses, so that

state education ministers can talk about teachers as reflective practitioners, and have

become part of new managerialist discourses so that school principals and administra-

tors can talk about the performative outcomes of using action research in professional

development. Critics such as Zeichner (eg 1993) point to the haphazard way that such

terms have been taken up by disparate groups. Ivor Goodson points to the "number

of problems" (1995, p. 55) that arise when the 'teacher as researcher' slogan is used

to focus research on teacher narratives and classroom experiences. While Butt et al

(1992, p. 53) call for "research approaches that allow the teacher's knowledge of

classroom realities to emerge", they also warn of the dangers of attempting to find

generalisable and prescriptive solutions in educational research.

TEACHERS AS BRICOLEURS

Within this context then, it is important to foreground the complex nature of teachers'

work and the rich mix of theoretical underpinnings that informs teachers' work. All

of my research and teaching is informed by my understanding of teachers as

bricoleurs. Bricoleur is a French word, drawn from the work of anthropologist Levi-

Strauss and used by French philosophers, Derrida (1978) and de Certeau (1984).

Abricoleur is someone who draws on a variety of resources around them to create a

meaningful assemblage of practices. For teachers, these resources may include

curriculum documents, teachers' reference books, in-service and professional develop-

ment sessions, pre-service education experiences, conversations with other teachers,

and memories of their own school experiences. Drawing on this diverse range of

resources allows teachers to create a bricolage of practice that makes specific and

particular sense for each group of students with whom they work.

Understanding teachers as bricoleurs and their work as bricolage helps me to make

sense of some of the questions and dilemmas that continually arise in the education

sector. For example, often departmental staff, curriculum advisers, policy writers and

academics assume that teachers do not read or understand policy documents and this

is blamed for the inconsistent uptake of new curriculum. When teachers are regarded

as bricoleurs , it is possible to see that teachers take what they need from any policy

documents to help them construct their meaningful practices. Each bricolage is

unique, even those constructed by the same teacher for different groups of students, in

different years, at different schools and so on. Teachers are also professionals, who will

not follow blindly mandated curriculum or departmental directives and who will not be

technical bureaucrats teaching with pre-packaged sets of materials from professional

development sessions. The teacher as bricoleur is someone who carefully and

thoughtfully makes a series of professional judgements about what and how to teach.

EILEEN HONAN

DISRUPTING THE THEORY/PRACTICE BINARY

The practical teacher is often constructed as subordinate to the theoretical academic.

The binary of theory/practice permeates teaching, teacher training, and theories of

pedagogy to such an extent that it is often taken-for-granted. The removal of sociology,

philosophy and psychology from teacher education courses, the 'what do we do

on Mondays' approach of many inservice packages, the atheoretical construction of

many teacher education curriculum courses, are all examples of the pervasiveness

of this discourse.

The implicitness of the theory/practice binary allows Bob Connell to disavow

teachers' abilities to theorise their work: "In place of theories of education these

teachers have what might be called operating principles about how to be a teacher:

something between a rule of conduct and a style of approaching the world" (Connell,

1985). Connell's statement itself constructs a binary between theories and operating

principles, as if one's style of approaching the world cannot be called theoretical.

This construction has much to do with the structuralist construction of knowledge,

with the Cartesian split between the mind and body, and with the commonsense view

that theory is somehow aesthetic and esoteric (the thinking), while practice is

pragmatic, embodied actions, (the doing). Construction of this binary denies the real-

ities of the ways in which theoretical propositions inform embodied realities. This in

turn denies the realities of teachers' work; classroom practice is always pragmatic,

embodied, and is always informed by some kind of thinking. The lack of attention

paid in research and pedagogical theories to the reflexive work that goes on in,

within, and behind teachers' actions has much to do with the maintenance of this

binary.

LOCAL AND CONTEXTUAL EXAMPLES OF WHAT WORKS

During the last 3 years I have developed research projects that are based on work with

teachers as co-researchers (Honan, 2004). These projects were designed to contribute

to the field of research involving teachers as critical, reflective co-researchers.

Research that provides insights into praxis actively contributes to the reconstruction of

"teaching as intellectual work" (Smyth, 2001, p. 197). Such research also contributes

to the development of new relationships between members of faculties of education

and the teaching profession, as it shifts the emphasis away from the construction of

academics as 'experts' towards collegial, ethical and agentic collaborations between

different groups of educators.

THE PROJECTS

The research projects involve teachers investigating their literacy teaching and learning

practices, using the framework of the "four resources literacy model" as a mapping tool:

One of the strengths of the "four resources model" is that it attempts

to recognise and incorporate many of the current and well-developed

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techniques for training students in becoming literate. It shifts the focus

from trying to find the right method to whether the range of practices

emphasised in one's reading program are indeed covering and integrating

a broad repertoire of textual practices that are required in new economies

and cultures. The model, then, is a map of possible practices

(Luke and Freebody, 1999).

The four resources model, as explicated by Freebody and Luke (see for eg Freebody

and Luke, 1990, 2003; Luke and Freebody, 1997, 1999), provides teachers with a

framework to investigate their current literacy teaching practices while also provid-

ing an overview of the particular resources that "participants in literacy events are

able to use" (Freebody and Luke, 2003, p. 56). These four resources are breaking the

code of texts, participating in the meaning of texts, using texts functionally, and

critically analysing and transforming texts. Teachers can use the four resources

model to examine their current practices to find out if they are helping students to use

all four repertoires of practices or if they are focusing only on one or two.

I have worked with three different groups of teachers as they undertake this inves-

tigation of their own practices, mapping the existing practices onto the four resources

model, and trialling strategies and teaching practices that would 'fill the gaps'. Each

of the projects has differed in timing and organisation, while following the same

framework. The latest of these projects, completed in November, 2004, followed the

procedure described here.

A group of six teachers and the school literacy coordinator met over a three month

period. We had five full-day sessions and one after-school meeting. At this first after-

school meeting, I provided teachers with readings on the four resources model (Luke

and Freebody, 1999; Freebody and Luke, 2003; Honan, 2004). During each of the

full-day sessions, teachers spent time writing and reflecting on issues raised. As well,

I tape recorded part of the discussions and their reflections at the end of the project.

The written reflections and responses and the transcriptions of the tape recordings

form the main part of the data collected, along with my own notes and reflections.

The teachers drew on their readings of the two papers, the framework, and on my

explanations of the four resources to develop a set of shared understandings about the

model. We discussed examples of activities that would assist students to develop one

or other of the resources and we talked about the kinds of balanced literacy programs

that could be the result of using the model. Following this session, the teachers

engaged in a discussion that centred on the question, 'why do we do the things we do?'

I asked them to brainstorm the factors that had influenced their teaching practices and

then to write about their responses to this question.

The teachers then collected data on their current teaching practices using diverse

sources such as their planning documents, student worksheets and/or information

they collect for ongoing assessment of student work, while others made notes about

their teaching practices while they were actually engaged in teaching. The next stage

of the research process was to map the strategies that the teachers currently used,

collected in the data collection phase, onto the four resources framework. The teachers

EILEEN HONAN

and I worked together to decide which of the four resources was being encouraged by

each particular teaching strategy they described as being used in their classrooms.

There are some important points that can be made about the teachers' practices

from the construction of this map, and the discussion that surrounded the construction.

For example, in one project, the emphasis on code breaking in their current teaching

was quickly recognised by the teachers. They drew each others attention to the growing

list of practices under the breaking the code heading, while at the same time noting that

they had not been previously aware of this emphasis. So the mapping exercise shed

new light on the teachers' existing practices.

In that same project, the teachers were aware that the practices listed under the map

heading participate in the meaning grew out of work they had previously done using

a language experience approach. The language experience approach encourages

teachers to plan shared activities such as excursions so that literacy teaching can

build on the shared knowledge and experiences gained during such activities. So the

mapping exercise assisted teachers to see how their theoretical beliefs about literacy

informs their practices.

In all of the projects teachers saw that they were not encouraging students to criti-

cally analyse and transform texts. Making visible this gap helped teachers to think

critically themselves about their own practices. So the mapping exercise not only

helped the teachers see their practices in new ways but also helped them to identify

where they might strengthen their work. This then is much more than just a reaffirma-

tion of teachers' work – the mapping exercise provided the teachers with the impetus

needed to create and transform new practices.

The next stage of the process was directed at the creation of new practices, as the

teachers worked to discover ways to teach students how to critically analyse and

transform texts. However, this search for new practices once again depended heavily

on the teachers' existing professional knowledge. From these discussions and

searches, the teachers devised practices that could be trialled within a two week period

in their classrooms.

After the two weeks of trialling new strategies we met to discuss the problems and

successes experienced in the classroom. We then began the task of creating a list of

strategies that could be used to encourage students' development of all four of the

literacy resources. This was a long and complex task that involved many drafts until

all the teachers were satisfied with the final list. During our last meeting I asked the

teachers to reflect, in both written and oral forms, on their experiences during the

project. I asked them to consider not only the content of the project, that is the inves-

tigation of their current literacy teaching practices and the use of the four resources

model as a mapping tool, but also the process of the project, including issues related

to time, organisation, number of participants and so on.

There were three decisions that I made in the planning of these projects that were

significant to the overall success of the relationship between myself and the teachers.

The first decision was related to time. Taken for granted within discourses that

describe teachers as 'life long learners' is that they will be willing to engage in such

learning opportunities in their own time. In Australia at least, and quite commonly in

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other countries, professional development and inservice courses are offered either

after school or on weekends. In Australia, schools may support teachers' participation

in such programs through financial reimbursement but few have the financial

resources to release teachers from classroom duties so they could attend such courses

in school time. Primary school teachers are especially vulnerable to this situation as

they have little non-contact time. A significant impediment to primary school teachers

becoming researchers is the lack of time available to them to pursue such intellectual

interests. The development of teachers as reflexive practitioners is also affected by

the lack of time available to them (Goodson, 1995). Teachers themselves acknowl-

edge the possibilities of transforming practices through thoughtful and considered

discussions about praxis (Honan, 2003, 2004). In my research funding applications I

therefore budget for classroom release for teachers to participate. This aspect of the

projects is always commented on favourably by the teachers in their final reflections

on their participation.

The second decision I made was to distribute some readings for the teachers to read

before the project began. The construction of teachers as atheoretical and practical

includes descriptions of them as non-readers, as too busy, or disinterested, to read.

I wanted to debunk this myth, or to at least test it, to see if teachers would read mate-

rials that were theoretical. In teaching language and literacy education, I often point

out to students that children will and do read, if the material is relevant and there is a

purpose for the reading. These criteria are also important to teachers (and to other

adults as well). I provided the teachers with sets of readings during our first meeting

and explained that during our first whole-day session there would be a space for

teachers to discuss these readings with me, to ask questions about the readings, and

that the readings provided the context for the project we were about to embark upon.

It was clear then to the teachers that the project depended heavily on their prior

reading of the materials.

The third decision was related to the expert/novice binary that permeates many

school/university partnerships. In a paper reflecting on the collaborative work under-

taken by academics and teachers in one significant research project, Grundy and her

colleagues point to a "history of school mistrust of academics" (Grundy et al ., 2001,

p. 207) as one of the impediments to the development of collegial relationships. In

their attempts to break down this perceived mistrust, the academics in the project

attempted to reject the "role of the 'expert', the outsider who has the knowledge and

provides the answers" (p. 208).

In my own work I also make a conscious effort not to position myself as 'expert'.

In one of the projects this seemed to be reasonably successful in at least one of the

teacher's eyes. Lavinia says in her reflections on the research process:

I've never been involved in a process where there's an end product like

this and you're going to publish it so it's an interesting process. I really

enjoyed it. I think that it's got a lot to do with you, very laid back way that

makes people have to think about it- gives people scope to feel that what

they're saying is beneficial and of benefit. Because what you're doing is

EILEEN HONAN

not saying well, I have an end product, I've already written it, you're

saying whatever the end product is it's worthwhile because the whole lot

of us went through that process not just … I like that you've challenged

us, if someone says something that you think, I don't really agree with

that, then you've said, oh I don't agree with that but you've never I don't

think it's ever been a put down, like I know more because I've done more,

it's more a well have you ever thought of.

Here, Lavinia constitutes me as a co-researcher who engages in discussions that

allow teachers scope to consider thoughtfully their current practices. While providing

opportunities for teachers to extend their thinking, this co-researcher undertakes such

challenges in such a 'laidback way' that teachers feel comfortable in offering their

own opinions. Lavinia's positioning of me as this collaborative co-researcher may be

due to our closeness in age, our common experiences in classrooms and schools that

were identified during our meetings, and her own acceptance of some of the chal-

lenges that I provided during our discussions.

PROBLEMS

Research or professional development

The model of research that I use is far removed from models of professional devel-

opment usually offered to teachers. I believe that this kind of research offers teachers

more complex and deeply theoretical ways to think about their teaching practices

than those offered in professional development opportunities. As I explained at the

beginning of this paper, one of the outcomes I desire is to encourage teachers to see

themselves as co-researchers investigating ways to improve their teaching practices.

Lankshear and Knobel (2004) have described one of the key points that distinguishes

teacher research from that led by academics as "that teacher research must flow from

the authentic or felt questions, issues and concerns of teachers themselves". Most

importantly they see this point as being compatible with guidance and formal sug-

gestions offered by academics. It is how the relationships are formed and conducted

between members of the research team that identifies the work as teacher research.

I believe that one of the impediments to this construction of a collegial relationship

between teachers and academics is the history of professional development and research

as sites for any engagement between these two groups of educators. Implicated in this

historical relationship between teachers and academics is "teacher education's his-

tory of ineffective incorporation of research into professional education programs"

(Kincheloe, 2003, p. 40). Kincheloe says that:

Teachers involved in on-site action research projects often have difficulty

adapting their teacher education-inculcated notion of research in educa-

tion into the context created by the teacher research proponents. Even

after their involvement in educational action research, teachers are

reluctant to say that they really did research

(Kincheloe, 2003, p. 40).

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To try to get a sense of the teachers' understanding of their own engagement in the

research project, during the reflection interviews I asked the question, 'did you see

this process as research or professional development?' Their answers point to the

complexity of trying to tease apart these two different relationships between aca-

demics and teachers.

I see the research has helped the professional development but I see it as

research because you basically asked us to collect data, to analyse data,

to talk about data, and then come up with recommendations for the next

time … I think the research side of it was important.

(Lavinia)

It would seem that here Lavinia understands herself as a co-researcher because of her

understanding of the nature of the research process. Collection of the data and analysis

of the data were undertaken by her so she knows that she was a researcher.

I don't know how you separate the research and the pd, because it was

pd, it was professional development but we also based it on somebody's

research. I think it was myself as a teacher receiving pd based on the

research and a little bit of the research process.

(Isobel)

Here Isobel is drawing on her past experiences of professional development programs

that are informed by research. The research done by somebody else (i.e. Freebody

and Luke) was more important to her than any process she engaged in.

I suppose I didn't look at it as research. I came on board looking at it as

professional development because I know when I signed up it was, for

me, well I'm coming here, I'm hoping to learn about something new

hopefully or take away with me strategies or even look at things in a way

that I hadn't looked at before. I didn't see it as research. I mean with

research I thought it was more your angle, it was something we were

helping you with but I saw it as two focus where I saw it as well, we'll

help you with your research and you're helping us to highlight the differ-

ent strategies we could use in the classroom. For me that was going to be

the purposeful thing.

(Jenna)

Jenna describes what I would call 'research as usual', where an academic invades a

school for her own purposes, and attempts to 'give something back'to the teachers as

a gift for being involved. While this would seem to be a cooperative exercise, it high-

lights the unequal relationships between academics and teachers during these types

of research projects.

I think it's a bit of both but I think the difference is, in PD you get given

a whole lot of in a day or something you get given a whole lot of infor-

mation and it's all theoretical. And the difference is we've been given a

EILEEN HONAN

lot of theoretical information as well but we've been able to use all our

practical experience and we've had time.

(Tara)

To Tara the difference between this project and her previous experiences lay more in

the time and content than in the process. Like Jenna's comments, Tara also points

here to the unequal relationship established between academics and teachers, where

the teachers are receivers of packages of information.

Comments such as these have led me to ask questions of myself as an academic

and a researcher, and of the research process I designed. Some of these questions

include: was I engaging in 'research as usual'under the guise of engaging teachers in

co-researcher practices? What kinds of discourses were operating in our discussions

and how did these discourses work to position the teachers as both co-researchers and

teachers receiving professional development? How am I implicated in the construction

of these positionings?

These questions provide a far different reading of the teachers' comments than a

reading that would increase the barriers between academics and teachers. In what

follows I turn a reflexive gaze on my own position within these projects, as I exam-

ine the discourses that I used in one particular project.

THE ACADEMIC AS EXPERT

In reflecting on my own rejection of the 'expert' role, I reassured myself that I had

never intended to take up this position. I revisited the funding application I com-

pleted, where I described one of the aims as: 'to support teaching staff at one school

as they undertake research to inform improvements in their literacy program'. The

synopsis of the project in this funding application included the point that the project

'will involve teachers investigating their own practices with guidance from

Dr Honan, and teachers and Dr Honan working together to investigate the changes in

pedagogical practices that occur after the introduction of the four resources model'.

Such admirable aims, and rejection of the position of expert, are contradicted, unfor-

tunately, through a close examination of the discourses operating in the conversations I

had with the teachers, as evidenced in the transcripts of the tape recordings. For

example, in the following transcript extract there are many indicators of the expert

status I hold:

Eileen: So do you think that's part of teaching generally?

Jenna: Very much so now at the moment

E: What do you mean now

Jenna: Because I think these days the focus is more on how children learn

best and we know so much more about different learning styles and we're

wanting to know more about it so we're gearing ourselves towards that

E: Lavinia did you want to say something?

Lavinia: I agree with Isobel I think that often you can make

changes … and you are very motivated and it the work's really hard but

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you work at it but then it becomes really hard work – there's a lot more

preparation – and sometimes it slides and you have to keep that motiva-

tion level up to maintain it – so I think change often requires a lot of

motivation on your part and a lot of good resources and good strategies-

otherwise it is a very difficult situation

E: Tara?

Tara: Umm because that's what's happened in my classroom because I'm

not really sure what they did in the first half of the year so we came in

and kind of created a different environment for them and um I guess

because I've done that before it wasn't as hard for me and it's taken them

a little bit of time but they've been able to get into a routine and I think

you have to get to know those children my children don't like lots of

change, but yeah like introducing just one thing, one activity going

through that and then they get comfortable with that type of thing, it

works. If you're introducing everything at once it gets too difficult I think

E: But do you think that's for yourself as well as a teacher?

Tara: Yeah

In this extract, I act as director and manager of the discussion. I ask the questions

(do you think that's part of teaching generally?', I direct who responds and when they

respond (Tara?), I probe for further explanations (what do you mean 'now'?), and I

attempt to steer the discussion in the direction I want it to take (do you think that's for

yourself as well as a teacher?). This is only one small example from the transcripts,

but the complete set of transcripts provides many such interactions. The turn-taking,

direction of discussion, and management of responses, are generally also examples of

common classroom interactions between teachers and students (Edwards and

Westgate, 1987). This is quite a telling analogy, as I was a primary school teacher, and

I am employed now as a teacher educator. It would seem then that the co-researcher

relationship I wanted to establish with the teachers in this project was infiltrated by

the discursive positionings more in common in relationships between academics and

teachers, or teachers and students. In both cases, the ascendant position is that of

expert, the holder of power(full) knowledge (Honan, 2002).

RESEARCH AS USUAL

I believed that the invitation to work with these teachers helped to establish the collegial

and co-researcher nature of this particular set of relationships. I intended that the

research project was organised in such a way that teachers' 'authentic questions'were

being addressed while they were being guided in the conduct of the research process

by myself as academic researcher. But in a description of the project (see Honan,

2003), the use of the singular personal indicates the number of decisions made by

myself without consultation with the teachers:

●I suggested that a pilot research project could be undertaken

●I decided to use the four resources framework

●I asked the teachers to spend time writing

EILEEN HONAN

●I tape recorded part of the discussions

●I asked the teachers to brainstorm

●I asked the teachers to collect data

●I introduced the four resources framework

●I gave the teachers two papers

●I asked the teachers to reflect

Here I am not claiming that a stylistic, grammatical alteration from singular to plural

personal pronouns would change the constitution of myself as expert. Rather, my use

of the singular pronoun signifies the power(full) position I maintained, both during

the research process, and in the reporting of the process. It signifies that the process,

while taking on the superficial gloss of the teacher as researcher rhetoric, continued

to uphold my power(full) position as expert academic.

CONCLUSION

Turning this reflexive gaze on my own contributions to the research project has

allowed me to examine some of the hidden implications of attempts to develop new

relationships between academics and teachers. My current work is extending this

examination to take account of how teachers are positioned within discourses sur-

rounding existing partnerships between teachers and academics. I am engaged in an

analysis of the discourses that academics use in their writing about the success or

failure of such partnerships. This analysis will reveal the subject positions offered to

teachers within these discourses, and the consequences for teachers who accept or

resist such positioning. This work will contribute to the development of partnerships

that recognise the complex theoretical work that teachers do, and engages both aca-

demics and teachers in collegial relationships that will result in research that has sig-

nificant impact on the improvement of quality learning outcomes in schools.

REFERENCES

Butt, R., Raymond, D., McCue, G. and Yamagishi, L. (1992) Collaborative Autobiography and the

Teacher's Voice, in Goodson, I. F. (ed), Studying Teachers' Lives . New York: Teachers College

Press, (pp. 51–99).

Connell, R. W. (1985) Teachers'Work. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin.

de Certeau, M. (1984) The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Derrida, J. (1978) Writing and difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Edwards, A. D. and Westgate, D. P. G. (1987) Investigating Classroom Talk. London: Falmer Press.

Freebody, P. and Luke, A, (1990) 'Literacies' Programs: Debates and Demands in Cultural Context.

Prospect: Australian Journal of TESOL, vol. 5. 7, pp. 7–16.

Freebody, P. and Luke, A. (2003) 'Literacy as Engaging with New Forms of Life: the 'Four Roles' Model',

in Bull, G. and Anstey, M. (eds), The literacy lexicon (2nd edition). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson

Education.

Goodson, I. F. (1995) Studying the Teacher's Life and Work, in Smyth, J. (ed), Critical Discourses on

Teacher Development. London: Cassell. (pp. 55–64).

Grundy, S., Robison, J. and Tomazos, D. (2001) Interrupting the Way Things are: Exploring New Directions

in School/University Partnerships. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, vol 29, 3,

pp. 203–217.

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Honan, E, (2002) 'Departmental Advisers as Official Interpreters: Torchbearers and Holders of Official

Knowledge. Paper presented at Australian Association for Research in Education Annual

Conference Problematic Futures: Educational Research in an Era of … Uncertainty, University of

Queensland, December, 1–5, 2002.

Honan, E (2003) Teachers as Researchers using the Four Resources Model as a Map of Practices. Paper

presented at the 48th World Assembly of the International Council on Education for Teaching, July

20–25, 2003, Melbourne, Australia.

Honan, E, (2004) Using the Four Resources Model as a Map of Possible Practices, in Healy, A. and Honan,

E. (eds), Text Next: new resources for literacy learning. Newtown, NSW: Primary English Teachers

Association, pp. 37–50.

Kemmis, S. and McTaggart, R. (1988) The Action Research Planner (3rd edition). Waurn Ponds, Vic:

Deakin University Press.

Kincheloe, J. L. (2003) Teachers as Researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a Path to Empowerment (2nd edition),

London: Routledge, Falmer.

Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2004) A Handbook for Teacher Research: From Design to Implementation.

London: Open University Press.

Luke, A. and Freebody, P. (1997) The Social Practices of reading, in Muspratt, S., Luke, A. and Freebody, P.

Constructing Critical Literacies: Teaching and Learning Textual Practice, St Leonards, NSW:

Allen & Unwin.

Luke, A. and Freebody, P. (1999) A Map of Possible Practices: Further Notes on the Four Resources

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[February 18th 2003].

Schon, D. (1995) Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Arena: Aldershot England.

Smyth, J, (2001) Critical Politics of Teachers'Work, New York: Peter Lang.

Zeichner, (1994) Research on Teacher Thinking and Different Views of Reflective Practice in Teaching

and Teacher Education, in (eds) Carlgren, I., Handal, G. and Vaage, S. Teachers' Minds and

Actions: Research on Teachers'Thinking and Practice, London: Falmer Press.

EILEEN HONAN

SECTION SEVEN

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY: TOOL OF THE

TRADE OR THE TERROR FOR TEACHERS?

It's no use standing in the shower if you don't turn the tap on.

from The wisest wisdom of Guru Bob

(Champion, 2004)

It won't happen overnight – and it might not happen at all …

The famous Knitting Lamas of Aerbaijani Marketplace,

cited in The wisest wisdom of Guru Bob

(Champion, 2004)

INTRODUCTION – ICTS AND CHANGES

IN EXPECTATIONS FOR TEACHERS

The two humorous quotes resonate provocatively with the challenges presented by

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). Specifically, despite the

increasing provision of computer hardware and software in classrooms, we continue

to observe instances of ICTs not 'being turned on', and whilst we acknowledge that

effective ICT integration 'won't happen overnight', there is evidence that ICT inte-

gration is 'not happening at all'. Support for this is provided by Morrison and

Lowther (2002), who note that although there has been a dramatic effect of ICTs on

work culture, we have not seen the predicted revolution in learning.

We distinguish here between the provision of ICTs (e.g. Internet capability) in

schools and meaningful learning with ICTs by students. For example, the NCES

report (2003) indicates that 99% of a sample of public schools in the U.S.A. had

access to the Internet in 2001, as did 87% of instructional rooms. Furthermore, 85% of

those schools with an Internet connection (all but 1%) used a broadband connection.

Nevertheless, while that data reflects high levels of accessibility to the Internet in

schools in the U.S.A., the availability does not guarantee meaningful use of the

Internet for learning. In part, this may be due to the caution posed by Brady and

Kennedy (2003) that teachers used to industrial-style classrooms will be challenged

by reconfigured classrooms. Similarly, Smith and Finger (2002) remind readers that

teachers and school administrators' experiences were shaped in an historical period

where clear boundaries and security were the norm. The certainties of these times have

"given way to a new kind of turmoil and uncertainty" (Smith and Finger, 2000, p. 22).

In many respects, issues involving ICTs are indicative of a wider movement

towards a different kind of society, where there are changed expectations for teachers.

For Blake and Hanley (1998), the critical factors associated with an imperative for

change include the growing importance of the Internet, the redundancy of technologies

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IMPROVING THE ICT UNDERGRADUATE EXPERIENCE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 625–640.

628

and the consequent increases in ICT budgets. This results in additional explorations

of new knowledge possibilities, pedagogies, and student-teacher relationships respon-

sive to learners' needs.

It is symptomatic of periods of fundamental change, as Smith and Finger (2002) sug-

gest, that cherished ideas become dysfunctional. The importance of this observation for

teachers is that school practices can remain unchanged from earlier times, before the

introduction of ICTs. While ICTs are being increasingly beyond schools, the inertia of

educational systems contribute to a situation where the production and reproduction of

obsolescent data and theories from an earlier period can continue to inform current

teacher education practice. Our view, in contrast, is founded on the premise that there

are critical connections between required changes in teacher education programs,

visions of new teaching and learning programs, and the educational benefits of ICTs.

ICTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION – DIMENSIONS OF ICT USE

Growing concerns about preservice teacher education in Australia have focused on

issues such as teacher shortages, funding, and teacher education quality provided by

universities. These are undoubtedly real concerns, reflected in the observation by the

Australian Council of Deans of Education (ACDE, 2001) that "teacher supply is

projected to reach critical levels over the next five years" (p. 114). However, we argue

that there are additional urgent issues relating to preparing future teachers to realise

the associated transformational potential of ICTs. There is now evidence of wide-

spread support that we need to "better exploit the potential of ICT" (DEST, 2002,

p. 3) but that:

… to date, this potential has not been realised in any significant way,

particularly the potential to transform how, what, where and why stu-

dents learn what they do. While there are only limited examples of the

transformative power in the educational sector, experience from industry

and other sectors clearly demonstrates that new times need new

approaches, and that the nature and application of ICT enable that

transformation.

(DEST, 2002, p. 3)

Recognition of the importance of ICT curriculum integration has already occurred,

and most teacher education programs have introduced courses in ICTs for future

teachers. International examples include the U.S.A. (US Department of Education,

1999), New Zealand (Ministry of Education, New Zealand, 1998), Hong Kong

(Information Technology Learning Targets Working Group, 1999), and Australia

(DEST, 2002). What is needed is a closer look at the aims and content of those

courses.

According to DEST (2001), there was a tendency in early approaches with ICTs to

focus on the acquisition of ICT skills as an end in themselves – teaching about comput-

ers. Subsequently, the focus moved to teaching with computers which attempted to

enhance teaching and learning through integrating ICTs within the existing curriculum.

GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

The teacher education response to this orientation aims to enable student teachers to

integrate ICTs into their teaching and learning. While this is a commendable develop-

ment, this conceptualisation of ICT integration assumes that the existing curriculum

remains unchanged in terms of what is taught, and ICTs become used as a means for

enhancing the delivery of that curriculum. Even at this level of ICT integration, success

is limited, as Making Better Connections (DEST, 2001), which reviewed preservice

teacher education programs in Australia, reported that "while pre-service teachers

receive considerable exposure to, and experience with, ICTs in their training, they

receive limited experience in actual classroom use" (p. 2).

Teaching about computers and teaching with computers reflects the first two

dimensions of ICT use articulated in the framework provided by DEST (2002) which

identifies four interrelated and overlapping dimensions of ICT use. The third dimen-

sion indicates that ICTs influence changes in what students learn and how students

learn, while the fourth dimensions notes that ICTs becomes an integral component of

reforms that "will alter the organisation and structure of schooling itself "

(pp. 20–21). Drawing on this dimension of ICT use, we question assumptions that it

is sufficient to focus on learning about and learning with computers. We maintain

that much of this work in teacher education has not gone far enough.

There is little evidence available which illustrates ICT use as an "integral compo-

nent of the reforms" to schooling. In our view, schools and student needs are likely to

be very different in the next decade. Among the diversity of school types will be

virtual schools, where students spend part or all of their time working 'off-campus',

for example, from home using an online computer. In preparing for the future, we

need to ask – what will schools look like in 5–10 years time? The traditional model

of one teacher with a class of students which meets in a physical space for timetabled

lessons is already being challenged. More than thirty years ago, Alvin Toffler's

(1970) prediction in Future Shock that computer-assisted education would play a part

in changes to school education anticipated the current developments of virtual

schools and other forms of distance education using computers. Clark (2001)

identified over 100 virtual schools in the U.S.A. alone. The number of these schools,

characterised by a separation between teacher and learner, and the use of online

computers, are continuing to expand. There are virtual schools in Canada, Australia,

Israel and the United Kingdom, in addition to examples such as the Islamic Virtual

School, the Virtual School for the Gifted, and the International House Net Languages

School (Russell, 2002). In addition to virtual schools, ICTs are affecting many

aspects of school education, and it is timely to consider what the implications of

these changes for teacher education might be.

ICTS AND TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS – ALIGNING

ASPIRATIONS AND AUDITING ACHIEVEMENTS

The aspirations for improving the ICT competencies of future teachers have focused on

the identification of standards in Australia, (DEST, 2002; Finger, Lang, Proctor, and

Watson, 2004), the U.S.A (ISTE, 1998; 2000) and the United Kingdom (BECTA, 2003).

629

ICTS AND TOMORROW'S TEACHERS

630

Within Australia, individual Australian states have established their own standards,

frameworks for teachers in their respective jurisdictions. An example is in

Queensland, which requires that graduates should be "proficient in the use of ICT in

learning environments" (Board of Teacher Registration, 2002, p. 6). Education

Queensland now requires government schools, as an accountability measure, to

undertake an ICT census which includes benchmarks for reporting the extent of ICT

integration (Finger et al., 2003; Proctor et al ., 2003). Moreover, Education Queensland

has formulated an ICT Continua which expects teachers to see their professional devel-

opment in ICTs as an ongoing 'ICTs journey' (Education Queensland, 2003a).

Thus, there are expectations that education graduates will need to be able to integrate

ICTs in their teaching, and consequently should be given appropriate undergraduate

courses for them to do so. However, it is not clear that existing courses match

the rhetoric. While the Australian Council of Deans of Education (ACDE, 2001)

predicted that "technology will become central to all learning", DEST (2001) noted

with respect to ICTs in tertiary teacher education programs that "while 75% expected

all teacher education staff to integrate technology in the teaching of their subjects

only 38% reported their staff actually doing so on a regular basis" (p. 39). To support

the closer alignment between understandings of the need for ICT competencies in

graduates and the actualities, The Council of Australian University Directors of

Information Technology (CAUDIT) sought to identify ICT literacy required of all

tertiary students and academic staff (Winship, 2000; 2001). CAUDIT encouraged

universities to develop action plans which included processes to audit "IT literacy

levels of staff and students on an on-going basis and of monitoring performance in

achieving the goal of IT literacy" (Winship, 2001, p. 43).

Watson et al . (2004) noted that Winship identified issues relating to ICT literacy

of university students that included the contestable assumptions that school leavers

will have advanced ICT competencies; ICT literacy cannot be assumed in the case of

mature-age students; ICT literacy is not a "once in a lifetime one shot injection but a

lifelong continuum" (Winship, 2001, p. 33); and even students entering university

with ICT competencies will require upskilling during the life of their university

course. Thus, according to Watson et al . (2004), there are identifiable expectations

that all university graduates will have developed an array of ICT competencies and

education systems will expect education graduates to have additional competencies.

In an audit of teacher education undergraduates' perceptions of their ICT experiences

at one Australian university, Watson et al. (2004) raised concerns in relation to the

limited band of computer applications with which the participants expressed high lev-

els of competence and the high percentages of participants who perceived themselves

to have no competence with certain applications. According to Watson et al. (2004),

this applied specifically to applications such as multimedia development, visual

thinking software and digital video editing which are arguably the applications that

should be evident in schools.

Participants' self-perception of their confidence to integrate ICT into student

learning also revealed that the percentage of participants who rated themselves as

having no or limited confidence with particular integration examples was of concern.

GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

In relation to the integration examples, information was sought from respondents to

items taken from the ICT curriculum integration performance measurement

instrument (Proctor et al ., 2003) which Education Queensland uses in its annual ICT

census data collection. This could be perceived as a predictor of ICT integration as

these future teachers will be required to report against those ICT curriculum integration

examples. Importantly, Watson et al. (2004) highlight the importance of conducting

audits of the ICT experiences of students in undergraduate teacher preparation programs

to ensure that all graduates will have the necessary competencies and confidence to

integrate ICT into their students' learning. Furthermore, they are dubious about the

extent to which all university academics are sufficiently ICT competent to model

ICT integration effectively and hence state that "Specialist ICT academics have a

role in the planning of ICT experiences across programs and in the auditing of ICT

outcomes" (Watson et al ., 2004).

SCHOOL EDUCATION AND ICT: ONLINE

INITIATIVES IN AUSTRALIA

In an overview of ICT initiatives in educational systems across Australia, Finger and

Trinidad (2002) concluded that there is an "emergence of initiatives aimed at taking

advantage of the potential of connectivity and students'learning in an online world"

(p. 4). Evidence of the Australian Commonwealth Government's support for such ini-

tiatives is also found in the DETYA (2000) report, entitled Learning in an Online

World – School Education Plan for the Information Economy. As displayed in

Table 43.1, major online initiatives are occurring at the national level within

Australia.

631

ICTS AND TOMORROW'S TEACHERS

TABLE 43.1 Online initiatives in Australia Commonwealth Department of Education, Science

and Training (DEST) Initiatives and Projects

Initiatives and projects Summary

●Progress report: ●The Commonwealth Government promotes and supports

Learning in an online national collaboration across school systems to achieve the

world goals set down in Learning in an Online World

●The Le@rning ●A component of Backing Australia's Ability: An Action Plan

Federation – Schools for the Future, the Le@rning Federation aims to generate

online curriculum online curriculum content for system delivery to schools

initiative

●Innovation and best ●The report School Innovation: Pathway to the Knowledge

practice project Society is available at

http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2001/index.htm

●Quality teacher ●Information technology is one of the QTP's six priority

programme (QTP) areas

●Models of teacher ●The project report Making Better Connections: Models of

professional teacher professional development for the integration of ICT

development for the into classroom practice is available at

integration of ICT into http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2002/profession

classroom practice al.htm

Continued

632 GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

●ICT competency ●The project now complete and the report Raising the

standards for teachers Standards: a proposal for the development of an ICT

competency framework for teachers is available at

http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2002/raisingsta

ndards.htm

●Innovative bandwidth ●High speed online communications is a very high priority

arrangements for the for the education and training sector. The project report is

Australian education available at

and training sector http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2001/bandwidth/

index.htm

●Computer ●This project provides surplus Commonwealth Government

technologies for computers and equipment to schools throughout Australia

schools

●Technical standards for ●The AICTEC established a Standards Sub-Committee to deal

the education and with standards issues relating to ICTs for education and

training sector training

●Performance measures ●MCEETYA, in 2001, endorsed a framework for national

for ICT assessment and reporting of students'ICT skills and

knowledge. MCEETYA also authorised the development of

assessment instruments and key performance measures, and

endorsed the national monitoring of ICT skills and

knowledge of Year 5/6 and Year 9/10 students through two-

or three-yearly sample assessment

●National ICT Research ●An online database of State, National and Commonwealth

Database research on the use of ICT in school education has been

developed

●International ●This project describes and analyses what governments in

comparison of ICT Australia and overseas, private education and training

policies providers in Australia are doing in terms of ICTs and

supporting transition to the information economy. This will

provide a searchable, online database available through

EdNA Online

●Effective use of ICT to ●This project seeks to identify effective ICT practices and

enhance learning how they can be used with disadvantaged students to

outcomes of enhance learning outcomes

disadvantaged students

●EdNA online ●EdNA Online website is available at

http://www.edna.edu.au, is managed by education.au.limited

which is a non-profit company owned by the State, Territory

and Commonwealth Ministers for Education and Training.

This website provides a portal for an extensive range of

quality services and resources to facilitate a network of

Australian educators

(Source: Finger and Trinidad (2002) Summarised from MCEETYA Information Communication Technologies in

Schools Taskforce. (2002). Learning in an online world: the school education action plan for the information

economy Progress report 2002. MCEETYA.)

TABLE 43.1 Continued

Initiatives and projects Summary

633

ICTS AND TOMORROW'S TEACHERS

As well as the obvious implications for schools from the national initiatives, each of

the Australian States and territories are engaged in online initiatives. For example,

Table 43.2 displays examples of systemic online initiatives in Queensland. Listed

among the digital content initiatives is The Virtual Schooling Service, which introduces

new flexible delivery strategies using a range of ICTs (Education Queensland, 2003b).

Delivery modes can be synchronous whereby students are linked using audio and

data conferencing technology. In addition, asynchronous teaching and learning is

available whereby the students can access digital media including documents, digital

video, audio and graphics.

TABLE 43.2 Education Queensland – Systemic ICT Initiatives and Projects

Summary of Education Queensland's Systemic Projects to Support ICTs for Learning

Hardware, Infrastructure and Connectivity

●The systemic student to computer ratio improved from 6.6:1 to 6.1:1 over

12 months from 2000 to 2001. In Secondary Schools, the systemic student to

computer ratio was 4.6:1.

●Schools report that, in 2001, 66.2% of curriculum computers had access to the

managed Internet service.

●Education Queensland has set a target of 1 computer for every 5 students by

2005. (http://education.qld.gov.au/corporate/qse2010/pdf/draft-action-2010.pdf)

●All Education Queensland schools are part of the Wide Area Network, each

with either full cabling or a network starter kit installed.

Staff Professional Learning Programs

Learning and Development Foundation facilitates learning programs. ICT related

professional development initiatives included:

●Quality Teacher Program

●Learning and Development Centres (Technology) were established to provide

professional development for teachers.

Other initiatives include:

●The establishment of 8 Technology, Maths and Science Centres of Excellence.

●The Minimum Standards Learning Technology requires all teachers to have

attained these standards.

●The Information and Communications Technology Continua (draft form)

provide scaffolds for personal learning and development plans that incorporate

ICT (http://education.qld.gov.au/curriculum/learning/technology/cont.html).

●Education Queensland's Website (http://education.qld.gov.au)

Redesigned to improve teacher and student access to online resources. The

Curriculum Exchange, for example, has ICT resources

http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/curriculum_exchange/ict/

●ICTs for Learning Strategy (http://education.qld.gov.au/ictsforlearning/)

Aims to assist Queensland state schools to integrate information and

communication technologies (ICTs) into teaching, learning and the curriculum.

It is part of the Queensland government's Education and Training Reforms for

the Future (ETRF) package.

Continued

634 GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

Implications of Online Learning for Teacher Education Futures

An extrapolation of these trends into the future predicts that teachers will need skills

that are not currently emphasised in many teacher education courses, and that other

skills will become less important when compared with current needs. Palloff and

Pratt (2001) refer to the concept of the art of online teaching, and indicate that teaching

in the cyberspace classroom requires that we move beyond traditional models of

pedagogy into new and more facilitative practices. However, the transfer of traditional

pedagogy to new and different media has not been matched by adequate training and

professional development, resulting in the following difficulties:

●teachers within academic institutions ill-prepared to teach in an online environment;

●poor student and faculty participation in courses;

●difficulties with course construction; and

●poor course evaluations by students.

(Palloff and Pratt, 2001)

Key Features:

Benchmarking, Core Schools Program, Priority Schools program, Innovation,

Excellence and Improvement program

●Systemic Projects to Support ICTs for Learning

School ICT Profile Project, Performance Measures Project, Systemic

Procurement and Service Delivery Project, ICT Support, Online Examples of

ICT Curriculum Integration, Community Access to ICTs in Schools, Learning

and Development Centres (Technology), and The Learning Place.

●Education Queensland's Information Technology Board

Established as a high-level strategic action group

●Digital Content Initiatives

AccessED produces digital content. Edulist is a collection of reviewed Internet

sites. The Digital Resource Centre service is a key element and manages the

Curriculum Exchange and Professional Exchange. Virtual Schooling Service

has developed a range of digital content for some Year 11 and 12 subjects.

Education Queensland actively promotes EdNA Online and Education

Queensland schools are participants in EdNA sponsored online collaborative

projects such as Netdays and OZProjects.

●BYTE Awards

Established to recognise excellent student achievement in ICTs and developing

partnerships with industry leaders and universities.

●Blackboard5

Adopted as the Standard e-learning Platform.

●Managed Internet Service Steering Committee

Established to enhance communications between schools and the Internet

Service Provider.

(Source: Finger and Trinidad (2002). Summarised from MCEETYA Information Communication Technologies in

Schools Taskforce. (2002). Learning in an online world: the school education action plan for the information economy

Progress report 2002.)

TABLE 43.2 Continued

Summary of Education Queensland's Systemic Projects to Support ICTs for Learning

635

ICTS AND TOMORROW'S TEACHERS

Thus, we argue that new skills are needed to enable the potential benefits afforded by

ICTs to be realised. In order to conceptualise these new skills we have drawn on lists

of skill sets in the U.S.A. and Australia. These include the enGauge 21st-century

skills list (NCREL, 2003), which in turn has been derived from a number of nationally

recognised skill sets in the U.S.A. In addition, we considered the teacher learning tech-

nology competencies developed by the Australian Council for Computer Education

(ACCE, 2000). We have also drawn on the conceptual map of ICT skills provided by

Russell, Finger and Russell (2000). These writers, drawing on the earlier work of

Sandholtz et al ., (1997), argue for a transformative stage in teaching and learning using

ICTs, in which technology is a catalyst for significant changes in learning practice.

Two of the essential conditions for effective technology use; that is, the notions of

educator proficiency and effective teaching and learning practice, defined by NCREL

(2003) as:

Educator proficiency (with Effective Teaching and Learning Practices) refers to

educators who are proficient in implementing, assessing and supporting a variety of

effective practices for teaching and learning. Proficiency requires the cultivation

of digital-age skills and processes, planning and design, implementing technology-

supported learning, assessment literacy, professional practice and productivity, and

able to guide students as they deal with social, ethical and legal issues related to life

in a technological world; and

Effective teaching and learning practice requires the vision to be translated into

practice through learning environments characterised by powerful, research-based

strategies that effectively use technologies.

Those two considerations do not comprehensively cover all dimensions proposed

in the NCREL framework. However, our focus on these represents an attempt to sug-

gest a starting point for identifying implications for pre-service teacher education. In

each case, a future skill is identified, together with corresponding implications for

teacher education (see Table 43.3). In our view, this is necessary to enable alignment

with the third and fourth dimensions of ICT use (DEST, 2002, pp. 20–21), described

earlier in this chapter, to realise effective changes in what students learn, how stu-

dents learn, and contribute to reforms to the organisation and structure of schooling.

The New London Group (1996) notes that as we move into the 21st Century,

changes have occurred in almost all aspects of people's working, public and private

lives. The spread of ICTs in schools through improved provision of computer hard-

ware, infrastructure and connectivity should not be seen as an isolated example of

change affecting traditional educational structures. Rather, ICTs are a sign of the

global, social and technological changes that have contributed to the 'new times' that

we live in, a time where daily life is mediated by complex and changing multimedia

and technologies. In education, this situation causes unavoidable dissonance as

teachers who were trained in earlier times try to forecast and prepare others and

themselves for future times (Luke, 2001). It is likely that this problem is compounded

by the concerns relating to resistance raised by Hodas (1993). In this understanding

of the organisational culture of schools, a conservative conception of what schools

should be like can delay adequately preparing future teachers to cope with such

636 GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

TABLE 43.3 Implications of ICT and connectivity for teacher education

Essential conditions

Teacher skill Implications for teacher education

Educator proficiency

Behaviour ● Still required in conventional schools. Reduced need in virtual schools

management where there is no face-to-face contact. New environments require

●Establishment of protocols for online communications;

●Development of acceptable use policies; e.g. for Internet use;

●Confidentiality, copyright, intellectual property.

Multi-modal screen-based ●Increased need for this skill in most traditional and virtual schools.

literacy Includes

●Reading, authoring and correcting screen-based material;

●Advising students on appropriate use of elements such as graphics

and sound;

●Teaching web-authoring and multimedia production;

●Evaluation of online materials.

Assessment ● Multimedia and online environments enable

●Creation of digital/electronic portfolios;

●Online testing;

●Online surveys, data collection, storage and analysis.

Authenticity ● Students will submit materials electronically. Verification will be

determination difficult. Issues include

●Cybercheating and plagiarism;

●Intellectual property.

Context knowledge ● Teachers should not learn ICT skills in isolation. They will need to

know

●Social practices, beliefs and values that embed ICTs in students' lives.

Effective teaching ● Implications for Teacher Education

and learning practice

ICT curriculum ●Adequately prepared to design teaching and learning experiences where

integration their future students demonstrate high levels of ICT use; e.g.

●To critically interpret ICT-based information and evaluate the worth

of this information;

●To develop confident, responsible and ethical attitudes to the use of

computers in their school and society globally;

●To communicate with others locally and globally.

Hypertext pedagogy ●In addition to a basic knowledge of how to follow or create hyperlinks,

teachers will need to be able to:

●Create hyperlinks;

●Teach and learn in an online world;

●Teach students how to avoid the "lost-in-space" syndrome;

●Achieve deep learning using the Internet;

●Incorporate web-delivered, web enhanced and web-supported modes

of delivery;

●Incorporate "Learning objects" in teaching.

Interpreting cues in ● In the absence of face-to-face cues such as facial expressions and body

mediated language, teachers will need to develop skills in reading nuances in

communication email and other materials sent by students; e.g. emoticons.

Continued

637

ICTS AND TOMORROW'S TEACHERS

challenges and to capitalise upon the potential of the new ICTs to create new learn-

ing and teaching environments.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have argued that ICTs in education are linked to the need for an

urgent reconceptualisation of the skills and learning experiences of students in cur-

rent teacher education courses. We suggest that future teachers will require skills not

currently emphasised in many teacher education programs, and that some skills

which have been traditionally considered as important will become less central.

Teacher education programs must move beyond a focus on the improvement of ICT

skills, and beyond learning to integrate ICTs into existing curriculum using current

practices. In this chapter, we have presented the case that we must aspire for more

than that. Furthermore, we have argued for developing processes for auditing the ICT

experiences, competencies of undergraduate education students to ensure that those

aspirations are achieved.

NOTES

This Chapter has built upon the following refereed conference papers by the same authors:

Russell, G. and Finger, G. (2003) Teacher Education Futures: Implications of Teaching and Learning in

an Online World. Paper presented at ICET/ATEA 2003 , July 20–25, 2003. Melbourne, Australia, and

Finger, G. and Russell, G. (2004) Teacher Education Futures: Implications of Teaching and Learning in

an Online World. Paper presented at the ACEC 2004, Research, Reform, Realise the Potential,

July 5–8, 2004. Adelaide, Australia.

Socialisation and the ● Where traditional school-based socialisation is reduced by agencies

teaching of values such as virtual schools, teachers will need to be able to offer alternative

programs;

●Explicit provision must be made for the teaching of values required in a

civilized community.

Incorporating ● It will not be sufficient for teachers to be able to use a computer, or

ICTs into understand common applications such as a word processor, spreadsheet

discrete or database.

subject areas ●All teachers will need to be able to use online computers for learning in

specific subject areas, in rich tasks which involve a transdisciplinary

approach, and in integrated themes across subjects involving an

interdisciplinary approach.

TABLE 43.3 Implications of ICT and connectivity for teacher education

Essential conditions

Teacher skill Implications for teacher education

638

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GLENN RUSSELL AND GLENN FINGER

In recent years, webfolios and ePortfolios have been highly vaunted as the next great

innovation in education (Kilbane and Milman, 2003; Educause: NLII, 2002;

Gathercoal, Love, Bryde and McKean, 2002; Love, McKean and Gathercoal, 2004).

Prominent in the literature is optimistic rhetoric praising the benefits of the heuristic

and metacognitive processes native to generating growth and showcase portfolios;

most of the literature indicates that the process is so important and so valuable to the

student, that the process alone is reason enough to "dump" traditional assessment

practices in favor of portfolios, ePortfolios and/or webfolios.

Gaining widespread popularity in education, portfolio assessment has

tremendous advantages over traditional one-time, objective-based test

assessment. Objective-based test assessment only focuses on the product

and limits the learner's ability to demonstrate the learning process. It

does not allow learners to focus on specific developmental issues that

are important to them, instead forcing them to focus on what the teacher

deems important. Traditional assessment is a "moment in time glimpse"

of a learner's ability to perform a task or set of tasks. It does not account

for any external forces that may be affecting learners' ability to demon-

strate their skills. In addition, portfolio assessment allows learners to

demonstrate the knowledge they felt was crucial to their learning experi-

ence. Through properly constructed and thoroughly documented portfolios,

learners can chronicle the moments of discovery that they underwent

during their learning journey (Herman and Morrell, 1999, p. 86–87).

Today there is considerable interest in K-12 schools to move from paper to electronic

portfolios and there seem to be no apparent obstacles, certainly no technical obsta-

cles that will impede that transition. This is the view held by the authors of this

chapter when we began implementing web-based electronic portfolios in K-12

schools. After implementing and generating our own web-based student portfolios in

higher education, our experiences at California Lutheran University (CLU) and our

work with other institutions indicate the transition is not as easy as it seems and

successful implementation depends on a set of critical success factors. In K-12 schools

where some of the success factors are missing, CLU is assisting its partner schools by

providing resources and training so CLU can better prepare our preservice teachers

641

PAUL GATHERCOAL, JUDITH CROWE, SILVA KARAYAN,

THOMAS MCCAMBRIDGE, SUSANNE MALISKI,

DOUGLAS O. LOVE AND GERRY W. MCKEAN

44. WEBFOLIOS: AUTHENTIC OF STATE

AND ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 641–656.

642

who are placed in these partner schools, our graduate students who are already teaching

and our cooperating teachers to better use technology in teaching and learning.

As developed in this chapter, a webfolio is a tightly integrated collection

of web-based multimedia documents that includes curricular standards,

course assignments, student artifacts in response to assignments, and

reviewer feedback of students' work. In the authors' opinions it is the

integrated collection and how the collection is stored and used that

differentiates the webfolio from other paper and traditional electronic

portfolios. The webfolio opens up new possibilities for observing and

influencing the interaction between curriculum, students, parents and

teachers.

A K-12 webfolio system consisting of teacher assignments, learning resources,

student artifacts, mentor feedback, and curriculum standards is being utilized in the

CLU Teacher Preparation program and in partner schools. The webfolio system also

supports continuous curriculum improvement and allows all educators to share

teaching and learning strategies, learning resources, and assignments with their

colleagues. A collaborative community of learners evolves around the development

and use of the webfolio system. Students respond to assignments linked to state cur-

riculum standards by generating multimedia WWW documents (artifacts ). Teachers

and mentors provide feedback on a student's work and the comments are kept as elec-

tronic logs and viewed only by the student who generated the artifact. A web-based

system instantly organizes a student's work and presents the artifacts in a student

webfolio, displaying not only the artifact, but also the associated assignments and

activities. Any authorized webfolio user can assess the student's mastery of curricu-

lar standards. A student's webfolio starts in kindergarten, is continued through grade

12, and it archives a student's lifelong learning and career development; as well as

showcasing the newest and finest achievements in the student's life work. This man-

uscript will discuss how the ProfPort K-12 Webfolio system operates and share

insights about the implementation process in CLU's K-12 partner schools.

RATIONALE FOR USING A WEBFOLIO WITH

A STANDARDS-BASED CURRICULUM IN K-12 SCHOOLS

As with all educational reforms, the standards movement in California has brought

both opportunities and challenges. One of the challenges is to make teaching to the

standards an engaging and meaningful process for students and for teachers, rather

than just another arid and empty "reform" imposed from above. Authentic assess-

ment of student work, including a cumulative presentation of that work, would

encourage authentic student participation in the work. A web-based portfolio system

provides a way for teachers to organize their instruction, to store student work, and to

allow for authentic assessment of student learning.

The California academic content standards are carefully organized to be sequen-

tial, developmental, and age-appropriate. The use of a webfolio can help teachers

PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

make both instruction and assessment also be sequential, developmental, and age-

appropriate. Grade-level colleagues, academic departments, and even district-wide

groupings of teachers should collaborate on the targeting of standards, the creation of

authentic and meaningful assessments of the learning of those standards, and

collegially-developed methods of instruction. A webfolio can allow for ways of

organization that are easier to navigate for students and teachers, and allow for a

more obvious set of connections among assignments to demonstrate the develop-

mental sequence of assignments tied to the standards. Clearer organization of assign-

ments, more obvious sequential and developmental processes within the

assignments, and the visible presence of assignments over a long period of time will

all aid both teachers and students in the process of engaging in a meaningful process

of standards-based teaching and learning.

The challenge for those charged with teaching to state-mandated standards is to

make standards-based instruction meaningful, purposeful, and engaging, not just

another set of required exercises. Teaching to the standards is no guarantee of

effective and engaging instruction, nor is use of the webfolio such a guarantee. But

portfolio assessment allows teachers to collect work over time, which allows students

and teachers to spot continuing problems, to note areas of progress, to develop holistic

evaluations of student work, and to develop holistic evaluations of instructional success.

The webfolio also allows for and encourages the kind of long-range instructional

planning necessary for successful teaching to standards. The California academic

content standards are organized in proper sequence and move from one developmental

stage to the next. By placing assignments on the webfolio, teachers are able to organize

for themselves and demonstrate to their students what the scope and sequence are.

This promotes long-term, focused, standards-based planning by instructors and it

promotes a deeper understanding of the course process by students.

One of the theoretical benefits of academic standards is that they express clear

expectations for what students should know. Organizing the standards into coherent

lesson plans, unit plans, and year plans will be a challenge for the teacher who

wishes to do more than plow through the textbook chapter by chapter. Having the

webfolio as a place to post assignments accomplishes several goals in this regard.

First, the assignments over a long term are visible to the students. Second, the web-

folio allows the teacher to include a great deal of information about each assign-

ment, including a notation of the standard or standards being taught to, a rubric for

the assignment, notes on how this assignment builds on the previous assignments

and helps prepare for the following assignments, links to web resources that would

be helpful on this assignment, and so on. And third, the authentic assessment

allowed for by the use of the web portfolio allows the teacher to modify future plans

on the basis of real data.

The use of the webfolio brings together three important elements of successful

instruction: teaching to well-defined standards, the authentic assessment of a portfolio

system, and the remarkable versatility and flexibility of the web. Teaching to state-

mandated academic content standards can be seen by some teachers as antithetical to

"real" teaching. The use of a webfolio as a means of assessment can help demonstrate

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644

to both teachers and students that standards-based instruction can and should be a

rich, integrated, informative, and engaging process.

THE BENEFITS OF A K-12 WEBFOLIO SYSTEM

The authors' implementation experiences within their own schools as well as their

experience working with other schools indicate that a critical success factor for

electronic portfolio implementation is a culture where educators clearly understand

their central role in the portfolio process is to be resource providers, student mentors,

conveyors of standards, and definers of quality. The major obstacle to successful

implementation of web-based electronic portfolios is not student readiness. It is this

full participation by all educators.

The misunderstanding about the educator role in the portfolio process stems from

a misunderstanding about the portfolio process and is magnified when schools

attempt to move from paper portfolios to exploit the promise of electronic portfolios

on the web. When engaged in a paper (hardcopy) portfolio process, limits on the

scope of portfolios are imposed by the hardcopy media, itself. Storage considerations

and dissemination for readers impose limits on the amount and type of content, the

number of readers/ reviewers, and the scope of the content. The hardcopy format

artificially imposes restrictive constraints on the number of participants in the portfolio

process, on what each participant can do, and on what an institution can accomplish

with portfolios.

When the move to webfolios is contemplated, portfolio supporters quickly under-

stand the web's promise of a rich variety of formats, unconstrained quantity and scope

of content, anywhere/anytime availability, and possibilities of integrating curriculum.

But, these visionaries fail to recognize the associated implications for their role and

the roles of other participants. Successful implementation requires participant appre-

ciation of the benefits that include tight integration of curricular standards, course

assignments, student responses to assignments, and mentor feedback about students'

work. Educators must understand their vital role and believe that the benefits of a

web-based portfolio system are worth the costs.

To obtain their participation, it must be demonstrated to educators that their

involvement has payoff for them and potentially dramatic payoff for the school.

Benefits increase for each participant as the number of participants increase, much

like the value of e-mail increases as the number users increases. Obtaining educator

participation is much easier when the school is already using some type of paper

portfolio process than when the school has had no experience at all with portfolios.

The most immediate physical benefit of a K-12 Webfolio system is the elimination of

storage problems associated with traditional portfolios. The Web-based portfolio allows

students to house artifacts in a virtual environment. No longer will they need to transport

and pick-up their artifacts from the teacher. The teacher can simply tap into their webfolio

and view the artifacts any time and from any place there is World-Wide Web access.

K-12 Webfolios can serve as working portfolios, developmental portfolios or

showcase portfolios. In the Webfolio system, students, in concert with their teachers,

PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

have complete control over what artifacts are displayed and who is able to see their

work samples. The K-12 webfolio system is a closed system and the teachers have

control over who can access what artifact. Initially the access is granted to both the

student and the teacher. Since students are not allowed to grant access or prevent their

teachers from seeing any of their artifacts the teacher acts as supervisor over what is

being placed on the Internet. When access is limited to just the teacher and the stu-

dent, they have a working portfolio with all their artifacts that only they can view, a

developmental portfolio that they share with all teachers is generated when the

teacher and the student grant access to "All Teachers." A showcase portfolio would

consist of those items that the teacher and the student allowed access to "Guests" and

they share these artifacts with parent/caregivers and significant others who have a

need to know, however the teacher and mentor comments would be hidden from

"Guests."

A K-12 webfolio encourages creative thinking and collaboration with others.

Students are not confined by the limitations of paper and pencil. They have the

resources of the WWW available to them and they can confer and collaborate with

the world as their partner. Students can display graphics, sound, digital video, text

and presentation media all in the same portal. The possibilities are virtually limitless

and only confined to the student's imagination.

The K-12 webfolio invites self-evaluation and reflection. Students are encouraged

to take a heuristic viewpoint and examine each artifact placed in their webfolio.

Teachers can give reflective feedback to the student and then the student can respond

by altering the artifact, working towards mastery of the subject. The student could

solicit feedback from other teachers and get a second opinion on the artifact before

deciding if and how to modify an artifact. The webfolio system will allow students to

construct their own truth, reflecting on each artifact with many mirrors, their peers,

teachers, and significant others. The use of a K-12 Webfolio system irreversibly

changes the teacher's role and the role of the student. No longer is the student simply the

recipient of information; the student is actively involved in constructing meaning by

generating and displaying for others their real world responses to questions and assign-

ments raised in a course or program of study. The teacher no longer simply imparts

information, but helps the student to construct meaning through facilitating and coordi-

nating the learning environment. The K-12 Webfolio system is truly a form of authentic

assessment and it matches up well with methods and strategies that complement con-

structivist philosophies.

K-12 WEBFOLIO ASSESSMENT AND STATE STANDARDS

The K-12 Webfolio system allows teachers to assign State and Program Standards to

each assignment students complete. At the beginning of school, teachers type or paste

their syllabi or unit plan, along with assignments, activities, and projects into the K-12

Webfolio system. They use a built-in web-based "What-You-See-is-What-You-Get"

(WYSIWYG) editor that is just like word processing. Each assignment includes

a brief description of the actual task along with sections providing additional

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646

assignment detail, pointers to helpful Internet resources, and criterion referenced

measures for assessment (a rubric). The teacher also ties each assignment to curriculum

standards, goals, learning categories and assignment types. This simple act involving

a few mouse clicks combined with the assessment scores the teacher assigns to each

student's artifact can be used to address critical assessment questions, like:

●Overall, have program goals and standards been met or improved?

●Have specific program goals and standards been met?

●Are individual students meeting goals and standards?

●Is the curriculum designed for success?

The K-12 Webfolio system exports selected information needed to address critical

assessment questions. This information can then be imported into SPSS, SAS,

EXCEL, and other analysis and graphical presentation packages. Graphs can be gen-

erated to indicate the percent of student artifacts assessed below, meeting, and

exceeding teacher expectations for multiple years. Charts can be produced that show

how mastery of a standard is being developed throughout the curriculum. The visual

impact is to immediately convey whether there is proper scope and sequence within

the curriculum to meet state and institutional standards and whether the curriculum

is helping students to achieve those standards.

Figure 44.1 indicates how the teacher sets up the assignment with a caption that

appears in the student's webfolio and how that assignment can be linked to State

Standards.

After using the webfolio for the first time, a teacher gets ready for an upcoming

term by taking a few seconds to have the system copy materials and assignments

from the previous term to the new academic term. In this way, the time spent developing

PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

Figure 44.1. Teacher sets up an assignment by providing a caption and linking it to state and program

standards

materials inside the webfolio system is not wasted as the teacher can copy the

materials to a new course and then update the course or unit of work as needed for the

new academic term.

The K-12 Webfolio system maintains the teacher and student content both as it

existed for the previous term and as it exists for the new term. This assures that some-

one looking at a student's work sample (artifact) several years later also will be able

to see the actual assignment as it existed when the student created the artifact. As an

intended by-product of the process, the teacher's course work continuously improves

with the updates and curricular modifications over time.

The entire K-12 Webfolio process begins with the teacher preparing course and

unit content for students before they arrive at school. On the first day of class,

students add the new courses and units of work prepared for them to their webfo-

lios by selecting from a list of teacher-generated courses and units of work. When

registered for the course, the student can then see every assignment, activity, and

project listed in his or her webfolio's table of contents, unless a teacher has made

use of the automatic scheduling feature built into the ProfPort Webfolio System to

hide the assignment from students until some later date. In that case, the assign-

ments will appear in the students' webfolios throughout the year on the teacher's

predetermined dates for specific assignments to appear. Either way, when an

assignment appears in the table of contents the description, models, resources and

rubric for assessment for each assignment are just a click away for every student in

the class.

Invariably at least one student asks the teacher to show the class examples from

past students' work. Some students appear surprised when the teachers grant these

requests, as they simply call up past students' work from the webfolio and orally

comment on the qualities of the work done by previous students. Although more subtle

in its approach, the teacher's goal is the same as that of the early twentieth century

industrialist who took a piece of chalk and scrawled the night shift's production number

on the factory floor for the morning shift to see how productive they had been that

night. By sharing past students' work with current students, the teacher conveys and

raises expectations as students will want to work hard to meet or beat the previous

piece of quality work.

Figure 44.2 and 44.3, displayed below, show how the teacher can provide quali-

tative reflective feedback to the student and also provide summative feedback by

completing a department approved rubric for assessment that is displayed in

Figure 44.3.

The teacher can also set a lock out date when she or he creates an activity. This

is a date when the system will "lockout" and no longer allow students to add con-

tent or modify their work in that section of their webfolio. This "lockout" date is set

for each artifact. After the "lockout" date, in order for the student to be able to add

or modify artifacts, the teacher has to change the "lockout" date to a future day.

Then, after the student has modified the artifact and the teacher has completed the

assessment of all students' work, the students are finally "locked out" of the system

so they cannot adjust their work again. When all is finalized, the K-12 Webfolio

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WEBFOLIOS: ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

648 PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

Figure 44.2. A student artifact in the Webfolio system with teacher feedback

inserted below the work

Figure 44.3. A departmental rubric used to summarily assess students'

work in the K-12 Webfolio system

administrator can export the data from the webfolio system and prepare it for

analysis.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

Sandholtz et al . (1997) indicate that teachers will not use technology unless they

believe it will make a difference in the quality of education provided to their students.

This is number one on the list of imperatives for implementing the K-12 Webfolio

system; convincing teachers that implementation is in the best interests of the

students they teach. At the same time, there needs to be an "implementing force" that

drives teachers to simply consider this proposition (Gathercoal, 1991). An imple-

menting force can be an idea, a policy, resources or some other motivating stimulus.

Usually, affecting faculty beliefs will go hand-in-glove with establishing an imple-

menting force, but this need not always be true.

At CLU the implementing force was a successful "Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers

to Use Technology" grant from the U.S. Department of Education. Prior to submit-

ting the grant, the authors took its contents to a Teacher Preparation Department

faculty meeting and presented all the goals and objectives of the grant for faculty

approval. Each goal was read and displayed and every faculty member was asked

whether he or she could live with the goal or objective or whether it needed changing.

One of the objectives read: To establish and use throughout the undergraduate and

graduate programs an electronic portfolio system that addresses specific competen-

cies in the various disciplines and in the Teacher Preparation Program. This objective

passed the meeting unchallenged. This tacit approval from School of Education

(SOE) faculty and concomitant grant award provided the SOE with its implementing

force and belief system that the Webfolio system would work to benefit the education

of all its students. It was a natural progression to then develop the K-12 Webfolio

System throughout the SOE's K-12 partner schools.

Teacher beliefs need to be addressed first and they need to be addressed often. The

implementation process cannot address teacher beliefs once and think that it is

finished. Teachers will question the use of technology every step of the way. Those

responsible for the implementation must be knowledgeable of reasons why this tech-

nology is good for education and how it works in the best interests of the K-12 students.

While continually addressing teacher beliefs and establishing an implementing

force, the next step is to break the implementation process into incremental units.

Implementation should not try to do everything at once. It is best to start small and

expand. It will take time, so K-12 Webfolio advocates and implementation personnel

should be patient as the process will probably take years.

At CLU the implementation began in 2000 with select partner schools and graduate

students. Presently, there are four entire schools, numerous teachers, preservice

teachers and graduate students who are teaching in K-12 schools and using the K-12

Webfolio system. We begin small and expand.

Resource allocation and reallocation is critical to the implementation process, too.

The implementation process will need institutional backing and credentials.

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WEBFOLIOS: ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

650

The administration of K-12 schools needs to "anoint" the process and its people and

ensure that all who are involved know that the implementation process is "approved."

It helps to give the process a name, at CLU the implementation is called, "MAG-

NETIC CONNECTIONS" and the process champions are given "credentials" that

set them apart from other faculty. When the implementation process and its people

are given titles and recognized by the institution, the process finds a quick way of

explaining away things that may not make sense. For example, when it is announced

that the Webfolio administrator will be team-teaching with teachers in the middle

school today, there are few questions asked about why or what. Simply mentioning

the name Webfolio administrator brings back visions of a commitment made to the

implementation of the K-12 Webfolio system.

Successful implementation will demand that regular meetings are held to provide

teachers with the concepts and skills for successful implementation. All teachers

need to attend these professional development meetings, and there must be multiple

sessions to accommodate the varied schedules of teachers. The meetings should

address both theory and practice. The meetings should be held during regular teaching

hours and the teachers should be paid to attend (if possible). K-12 Webfolio system

implementation should involve technology workshops and curriculum revision meet-

ings throughout the school year.

Chappell & Schermerhorn (1999) suggest five rules for implementation of

electronic portfolios:

Rule 1: Electronic portfolio programs should be mandatory if they are to

overcome resistance on the part of many students who remain technically

adverse …

Rule 2: Students must not be able to opt out of the program due to defi-

ciencies in their computer skills. These students must be encouraged to

recognize their computer shortcomings and catch up on their own time,

with the help of computer lab assistants …

Rule 3: Students need to be challenged and encouraged to select their

own materials to include in the ESPs, as long as the required content

areas are covered …

Rule 4: The portfolio program must run under defined deadlines, with

regular feedback to students. The provision of successful examples early

in the process is helpful …

Rule 5: "Portfolio champions" must be involved from the initiation of the

program to ensure success and foster imitation.

(Chappell & Schermerhorn, 1999, p. 658–660)

When implementing the K-12 Webfolio system, CLU's SOE found that these rules

were good caveats; but strictly enforcing them was not a good idea. Respecting

students' and teachers'needs and different learning styles and the speed with which

they come to terms with this new situation need to be valued and respected. For

example, some teachers and students may simply be "pushed out" of their schools

PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

because of the K-12 Webfolio system. Holding a strict posture on these rules

suggested by Chappell & Schermerhorn (1999) will certainly affect the culture of the

school and could "push" some out of education for good. We have found that it is best

to take a mentoring posture and help teachers and students to come to terms with the

new situation in their own time.

THREE EXAMPLES OF THE K-12 WEBFOLIO SYSTEM

IN PRACTICE

New technologies for enhancing the writing of secondary students can be facilitated

through the use of the K-12 Webfolio system. This is a prime example of K-12

school-university collaboration as well as a demonstration of the use of advanced

technologies. It also demonstrates the significance of ongoing mentoring as a method

for increasing the quality of student performance. This process enables the English

department in a secondary school to increase the rigor of writing expectations with a

realistic prospect of students' ability to meet higher standards.

This first exemplar arose from a Service Learning assignment in a Special

Education course. A CLU graduate student, who is also a special education teacher,

designed a service learning project involving the webfolio. This project connected

special education seniors with general education ninth graders. The two teachers con-

structed a rubric and trained the special education students to use the rubric. That

rubric was used by students with special needs to give feedback on the writing of

ninth graders. The special education teacher constructed a course in the K-12

Webfolio system. The rubric resided in that online course. There was also a place in

the course for general and special education students' reflective writing about the

process.

A second, similar example was part of a graduate reading course at CLU. The

director of the program, with the course instructor and a sixth grade teacher, created

a webfolio course called "OWL": Online Writing Lab. They used a rubric currently

applied in the local school district and trained the candidates in the graduate reading

class to use it to give feedback on the writing of sixth grade English learners. The

"OWL" was constructed as a component of the graduate reading course in webfolio.

The rubric resided in that course. There was also a place in the course for written

feedback from candidate to mentor/s and from mentor to mentor. There was a

focused effort to provide structure and consistency for the graduate students and the

sixth grade writers during the OWL experience. The program director assisted the

reading specialist candidates with using the webfolio system and with constructing

appropriate responses to student writing. The sixth grade classroom teacher also

visited the graduate class. She helped reading specialist candidates become familiar

with the district's sixth grade writing assessments and the rubrics used to grade them.

The teacher brought samples of student writing from a previous year, and the graduate

candidates scored them in class. The scores were then calibrated and discrepancies

addressed in class. The sixth grade students in need of extra help with writing were

selected by the classroom teacher, and permission was obtained from the parents for

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652

the students to write at home on the family computer. The selection was therefore

limited by student need, parent cooperation, and access to technology. One graduate

mentor explained the process to her sixth grader:

Hi Paperclip,

Thank you for sending me your last school essay about the Isaac Singer

story. I guess there was some confusion about how our exchanges are to

work. Here's the scoop: you write the essay and send it to me; I read and

write suggestions to you for rewriting the essay; you rewrite and send

that back to me; I read and consider if there are more things to do to

"polish" up before publication; we stop writing back and forth when

we've decided the essay is top notch and ready to turn in to Ms. Morton.

This process is actually the way writers and editors work!

(Rush, personal communication, 2003)

At the close of the semester, the graduate candidates were asked to provide feedback

on the experience. All reported growth in responding to student writing by putting

theory into practice; growth in using distance teaching and learning; appreciation for

the assistance of the classroom teacher and consistent, ongoing online support

from the course instructor. Sixth grade students reported seeing growth in their writ-

ing and enjoying the distance learning experience. Some challenges noted by the

graduate candidates were "insufficient understanding of the nature of the back and

forth editing process by the 6th graders, and an absence of deadlines or other guide-

lines to keep the 6th graders motivated to engage fully" (Rush, personal communica-

tion, 2003). It became apparent during the course of the study that use of an entire

class in a computer lab setting would have been preferable. In this case, student input

was sporadic and revising didn't occur as effectively as planned. It was suggested that

writing and responding would be enhanced if both sixth grade and graduate students

used a technology lab during scheduled class time.

It has been demonstrated that technology enhances communication between faculty

and students through use of electronic discussion groups, email and the use of portfolios

when feedback is present (Crowe and Karayan, 1997). The inclusion of a rubric elevates

that communication by focusing on assessment and evaluation connected to writing

standards. The use of portfolios across an extended time period can construct a complete

picture of the learning for each student. (Farr, 1991) The intent of these applications is to

provide consistent, ongoing, specific feedback to student writers. Strong portfolio sys-

tems are characterized by a clear vision of the student skills to be addressed … use of

criteria to define quality performance and provide a basis for communication, and self-

reflection through which students share what they think and feel about their work, their

learning environment and themselves (Arter and Spandel, 1992). The skills addressed

tied directly to the writing standards for the targeted grade levels. The rubrics provided

the mentors (grade 12 special education students and graduate reading program candi-

dates) and the student writers (Grades 9 and 6) with clear criteria for the work. In addi-

tion, student writers and mentors reflected in writing on the process.

PAUL GATHERCOAL ET AL

The third example comes from Ascension Lutheran School, a private, Christian

school with grades Kindergarten through eighth. The students in grades 7th through

8th were using the K-12 webfolio system as part of their history and computer sci-

ences. With each chapter addressed in class, activities are added to the webfolio with

the hope that at the end of the year the students will be able to complete a showcase

webfolio that shows evidence of how the students have met California's Learning

Standards for their grade level. The showcase webfolio can be used in place of a writ-

ten final exam for the course, as well as, for later school-wide accreditation reviews.

It provides a view of students' work over time without having the issues related to

storing traditional portfolios.

The webfolio allows authentic assessment of students'learning, encouraging stu-

dents to collaborate and take a creative approach to solving problems. Students beg

to go the computer lab, so they can use the system. The students have also found ways

of using the system when it is not part of the lesson. The students create their own

folders to transfer assignments from school to home. Often times this is because of

the pride they have in their work and they want to be able to show friends and family.

One student even taught her mother to use the system, so she could complete work in

the higher education version of the webfolio system used at California Lutheran

University.

The implementation process has been slower than initially planned because of

changes in administration and core teachers. The support and enthusiasm are still

present. The students who were in 6th grade when we initially introduced the webfo-

lio system are now in 8th grade and now have a webfolio that contains samples of

work from their time in middle school. The students can see the progress they have

made in their writing and technology skills. Students also have access to assignments

that would have been deleted off the school server in order to save hard drive space.

The school plans on implementing the webfolio system throughout all of the academic

classes in 6th through 8th grades. The hope is to create integrated and cross-curricular

activities to promote higher order thinking skills. In the future the system will be

implemented into the elementary portion of the school. The hope is to provide

evidence of the students'learning throughout their schooling. The webfolio system is

a simple way for teachers to see what the students have done in the past and gauge

their ability to meet expected learning standards.

CONCLUSION

Principal to the process is the educator's beliefs about technology and assessment

practices. Educators must give up the idea that portfolios are something that is done

"to" students and embrace the notion that the webfolio process is something that is

done "with and for" students. A well-designed curriculum embedded in a webfolio

system, conveying academic standards, appropriate resources and providing vehicles

for mentoring, enables student's development and upkeep of developmental, growth

and showcase portfolios at once. A K-12 web-based electronic portfolio system

acknowledges and appreciates the intrinsic links between student assessment, faculty

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WEBFOLIOS: ACCREDITATION STANDARDS

654

and program evaluation and the meaningful reporting of assessments and evaluations

to interested third parties. The most limiting factor surrounding the implementation

of a K-12 web-based electronic portfolio system will be lack of vision and "creative

imagineering." In the capable hands of professional educators who have the best

interests of their students at heart, webfolio systems may permanently transform

traditional assessment, evaluation and reporting to comprise authentic assessment,

evaluation and reporting. The K-12 Webfolio System used at CLU is a tool that inte-

grates aspects of assessment, evaluation and reporting into one web-based portal. It

facilitates formative and summative assessment and provides information that can be

used for program evaluation and needs assessment. The promise is great when the

institutional culture shifts to include the use of webfolios in teaching and learning, as

webfolios can challenge the mystique and authority of standardized tests which seem

to be the guiding force behind education today. The K-12 Webfolio System may be

the technological tool that will bridge the gap between standards-based accountability

and authentic assessment.

REFERENCES

Arter, J. A. and Spandel, V. (1992) Using Portfolios of Student Work in Instruction and Assessment.

Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, vol. 11, pp. 36–44.

Backer, P. (1997) The Use of Portfolios in Professional Education: A Multimedia Model of Instructional

Methodology. Report presented at San Jose State University CA (ED408356).

Bartell, C., Bryde, B., Mahler, J. Murray-Ward, M. and Gathercoal, P. (2001) Magnetic Connections:

Better Preparing Preservice Teachers to use Technology in Teaching and Learning. SITE 2001

Conference [CD-ROM]. (Available from Association for the Advancement of Computing in

Education, P.O. Box 3728, Norfolk, VA 23514–3728).

Bull, K., Montgomery, D., Overton, R. and Kimball, S. (1999). Developing Collaborative Electronic

Portfolios for Preservice Teachers in Computer Mediated Learning. Rural Special Education for

the New Millennium. Conference Proceedings of the American Council on Rural Special

Education (ACRES) (19th, Albuquerque, New Mexico, March 25–27, 1999) (ED429767).

Chappell, D. and Schermerhorn, J., Jr. (1999) Using Electronic Student Portfolios in Management

Education: A Stakeholder Perspective. Journal of Management Education , vol. 23, 6, pp. 651–662.

Corbett-Perez, S. and Dorman, S. (1999) Electronic Portfolios Enhance Health Instruction. The Journal of

School Health, vol. 69, 6, pp. 247–249.

Crowe, J. and Karayan, S. (1997). Student Perceptions of Electronic Discussion Groups. T.H.E. Journal.

Educause: National Learning Infrastructure Initiative. (2002) Electronic Portfolios (NLII 2002–2003 Key

Theme). http://www.educause.edu/nlii/keythemes/eportfolios.asp.

Farr, R. (1991) Portfolios: Assessment in Language arts. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on

Reading and Communications Skills.

Gathercoal, P. (1991) A Technology for Policy Implementation: Minimizing Incongruity between

Ostensible Policy and the Policy at Work. Educational Technology , vol. 31, 3, pp. 47–50.

Gathercoal, P. (1995) Principles of Assessment. The Clearing House , vol. 69, 1, pp. 59–61.

Gathercoal, P., Love, D., Bryde, B. and McKean, G. (2002) On Implementing Web-base Electronic

Portfolios. Educause Quarterly , vol. 25, 2, pp. 29–37.

Herman, L. and Morrell, M. (1999) Educational Progressions: Electronic Portifolios in a Virtual

Classroom. T.H.E. Jounal, vol. 26, 11, pp. 86–89.

Jacobsen, D. and Mueller, J. (1998) Creating a Collaborative Electronic Community of Education

Scholars. Paper contributed to the Teaching in the Community Colleges Online Conference (3rd,

Kapiolani Community College, April 7–9, 1998) (ED426732).

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Karayan, S. and Crowe, J. (1997). Student Perceptions of Electronic Discussion Groups. T.H.E.

Journal, vol. 24, pp. 69–71.

Kilbane, C. R. and Milman, N. B. (2003). The Digital Teaching Portfolio Handbook: A How-to Guide for

Educators. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Allyn & Bacon.

Kist, W. (2000) Beginning to Create the New Literacy Classroom: What Does the New Literacy Look

Like? Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy , vol. 43, 8, pp. 710–718.

Love, D., McKean, G. and Gathercoal, P. (2004) Portfolios to Webfolios and Beyond: Levels of

Maturation. Educause Quarterly , vol. 27, 2, pp. 24–37.

MacKinnon, G. (1999) Electronic Portfolios in Pre-service Science Education. Research Report presented

at Acadia University (Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada) (ED437029).

Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C. and Dwyer, D. (1997) Teaching with Technology: Creating Student-centered

Classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Collaborative online projects use communication technologies to communicate and

collaborate effectively with schools in various locations to participate in projects

which may be interdisciplinary or cross curricular in nature, with a defined purpose

or theme in order to facilitate meaningful and authentic student learning.

Collaborative online projects may use online communication technologies such as

email, mailing lists, newsgroups, discussion boards, bulletin boards and/or websites

to communicate across the country or the globe. They include the facility to use

communication technologies to collaborate on a theme, or for a purpose, defined by

the project. The level of collaboration may vary depending on the projects which may

have a limited life span or be ongoing. It can be argued that collaborative online

projects provide authentic purposes for the use of the communication technologies.

In some cases collaborative online projects focus on humanitarian and/or environ-

mental issues.

Gragert (2000) argues that 'the Internet is a powerful tool for connecting learning

to action as students collaborate on real issues facing young people in the world

today.'Carr (2001) believes that collaborative online projects provide valuable learning

experiences for students. She says that collaborative online projects can be powerful

social contexts for learners, enabling a variety of social experiences. Collaborative

online projects have played a significant role in the integration of computers into

teaching and learning throughout the world and to the internationalization of the

curriculum. The use of online communications for collaboration opens the boundaries

of both physical location and what are often stand-alone curriculum content areas.

Riel (1994) describes the potential of technologies to be powerful components in

accomplishing current educational visions. Such visions include helping students to

develop a broad, deep, and creative understanding of community, culture, economics

and international politics, past and present, and acquire the social skills to work

across differences and distances.

The history of the involvement of schools in collaborative online projects dates

back to the 1980s when the use of telecommunications in teaching and learning was

pioneered by the early adopters in the education profession. At this time collaborative

online projects used mainly plain text-based communication tools. Access to the

Internet was not available in many schools at this time and access to the World Wide

Web (WWW) was rare. For the limited number of Australian schools that had access

it was usually through a dial up account using a single telephone line. What would

now to be considered crude communication tools, such as email and conferences/

newsgroups and bulletin boards, were at the leading edge of communication

657

MURIEL WELLS

45. COLLABORATIVE ONLINE PROJECTS IN

A GLOBAL COMMUNITY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 657–674.

658

technologies at this time. Some of the early adopters of these forms of communica-

tion technologies in countries such as Argentina had even lower level internet access

through bulletin boards. Early adopters of communication technologies in teaching

programs were excited by the human interaction it enabled. The WWW sites that

were developed later did not necessarily enhance communications and human inter-

actions, in collaborative online projects. There are still many people in the world who

do not have any kind of internet access as demonstrated in a recent bullet from the

APCNews, the monthly newsletter of the Association for Progressive Communications

that describes how they are 'working with impoverished and disenfranchised sections

of communities in Argentina, Brazil, the Philippines and many African nations

including Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania and Zimbabwe' who have little

to no technology (APC, 2002).

Coppinger and Hocking (1996) who played a leading role in the promotion of

collaborative online projects, described how their aim was for teachers and students

in Australia and around the world to work together in a low-cost, people-centred,

telecommunications model where primary and secondary students could make a 'mean-

ingful contribution to the health and welfare of the planet and its people'. At that time

collaboration in online projects was conducted in online conferences (newsgroups).

Teachers and students from around the world communicated by sending electronic

messages that could be accessed with very low bandwidth, to the online conferences

(newsgroups). The closed conference/newsgroups used only plain text for messages

and were available to members only – teachers and students. The focus was on

expanding students' knowledge and understanding of their world from humanitarian

and environmental perspectives. One of the powerful aspects of these projects was

the international online community in which they operated.

Collaborative online projects are described in various ways. One description says

that 'in Collaborative online projects students are often faced with problems that are

best understood by talking with others, collecting data from remote sites, or going

through a series of problem solving activities' (Ask Jeeves, 2002). The iEARN

group's website provides this definition:

Collaborative projects bring together two or more groups of students

who work together on a theme or question or who contribute to a compi-

lation of materials on a topic. iEARN collaborative projects use the full

range of ICT, including newsgroups, email, web pages, video-conferenc-

ing. Many projects also involve physical exchanges of student work

either as part of the process of the project or as a culmination of it.

(iEARN, 2002)

The second example places more focus on the collaborative aspect in that it mentions

students 'working together'. The Macquarie Dictionary tells us that to 'collaborate'

is 'to work with one another'. So it can be expected that in collaborative online projects

students work together with other students online.

Collaborative online projects share some similarities with Project-Based Learning

(PBL) in that learning is organised around projects. But PBLs, (Thomas, 2000) as

MURIEL WELLS

they have become known, are projects 'focused on questions or problems that "drive"

students to encounter (and struggle with) the central concepts and principles of a

discipline'. Collaborative online projects tend to be focused on overarching 'issues'

whether they are scientific, environmental or humanitarian and are often global in

nature. They may well also include 'questions or problems' but the overarching

'issues' drive the encounters. They also include the use of online technology to facilitate

communications.

COLLABORATION/PARTICIPATION

The level of collaboration/participation varies between the collaborative online

projects identified. With many there is little more than a requirement for a class to

prepare some data they have collected, student writing, or artwork and send it to the

class/teacher 'running the project' – very much 'peripheral participation'. In projects

of this type the managing class and teacher may be involved in a high level of inter-

pretative work and collaboration with their students but much less involvement is

available for other participants. This level of participation was often seen as suiting

classes new to this approach. These could be described as more 'contributory' than

'collaborative'. Some so called 'collaborative projects' seem to have nothing more

than an online presence to provide information about activities. Other projects

require a more sophisticated level of collaboration and interaction with participants

contributing on a more equal level. Participation in this more collaborative format,

requires ongoing communications with responsibility for many aspects of the project

taken by all participants (See Figure 45.1).

Collaborative online projects in this case is taken to mean that the project encour-

ages a level of collaboration where teachers and students participate online in active

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE PROJECTS

Figure 45.1. Types of collaboration/participation

Contributory Collaborative

Projects in which all

teachers and their

students send written

material, artwork

etc. to the project

facilitator and

receive a 'product'

at the end

Projects in which all

participants have

some form of

ongoing

communication and

interaction but the

facilitator (may be

teacher and students)

takes a leading role

Projects in which all

teachers and their

students have some

form of ongoing

communication

and/or a major role

in the development

of the final

'product'

660

communication with other participants associated with the project, based around a

theme or purpose. When project participants work together collaboratively and are in

active communication they could be considered to be working within a 'community'.

COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE/LEARNING COMMUNITIES

Community is a term widely used in the online world. 'Virtual community' and 'online

community' are terms commonly used by groups who use ICTs for communication.

Virtual and online communities develop without the usual need for face-to-face

meetings or communications. Meetings and communications take place over the

Internet in synchronous (live chat) or asynchronous modes. Terms such as 'an inclusive

and culturally diverse community' can be found on many of the websites that host

project listings (iEARN, 2002).

Allard and Cooper (2001), argue that to build different forms of community an

ongoing commitment to and use of 'designed' cooperative learning among groups

and across differences as a pedagogical technique works to build co-reliance among

members and as well, provides for a sense of belonging. The process of working

through shared tasks where all members contribute in order for the different

groups/community to achieve the goal is a means that can help to give value and

respect to all contributions. In collaborative online projects it could be inferred that

higher levels of collaboration could be compared in terms of use of cooperative

learning among groups and building of different forms of community. This process

could be seen to be part of the value of participation in collaborative online projects

to the learning community. Wenger (1998, p. 214) describes how, functioning at its

lowest level, 'a community of practice is a living context that can give newcomers

access to competence and also invite a personal experience of engagement by which

to incorporate that competence into an identity of participation. When these condi-

tions are in place communities of practice are a privileged locus for the acquisition of

knowledge.' But, Wenger goes on to say that 'a well functioning community of prac-

tice is a good context to explore radically new insights without becoming fools stuck

in some dead end'.

According to Wenger (1998, p. 214) 'A history of mutual engagement around a

joint enterprise is an ideal context for this kind of leading edge learning which

requires a strong bond of communal competence along with a deep respect for the

particularity of experience. When conditions are in place communities of practice are

a privileged locus for the creation of knowledge'. Participation in collaborative

online projects allows for 'mutual engagement around a joint enterprise' and

'leading-edge learning' and can lead to a 'well functioning community' or at a

minimum 'legitimate peripheral participation' (Lave and Wenger 1991). The joint

enterprise being the communications in the online collaborative project and/or the

products created as a result of participation for example publications such as the

Faces of War CD ROM (Tate, 1998), 'The Meeting Place" magazine and the calen-

dar of art work from the First Peoples' Project or the 'Anthology of Children's

Writing' published in hard copy by the student management team in the Lewin

MURIEL WELLS

Project. Van House's (2002) explanation regarding the 'process of gaining credibility'

helps explain the vast amount of time spent on publications especially in the form of

hard copies of books, calendars and magazines (products) in what is otherwise an

electronic form of working. This apparent contradiction may be explained in terms of

how the products provide a means for the student's work to be valued but also provide

a means of publicizing and 'proving' the value of collaborative online projects, of

gaining credibility in that they 'carry the work' to a larger audience in the wider com-

munity in such a way that 'its meaning and significance are irrefutable' and contribute

to a communal memory.

Bede (2000) talks about technology creating a paradigm shift towards knowledge

networking and virtual communities that have communal memories. Virtual commu-

nities are well able to develop communal memories. Collaborative online projects

that operate within overarching organisations such as iEARN are especially well

placed to develop and draw upon 'communal memories'. Threaded conversations

within online forums in their various forms are particularly well placed to support the

ongoing development and use of 'communal memories'. Collaborative online

projects could be seen, particularly in the case of projects identified as facilitating

high-level collaboration, as empowering this paradigm shift with the participants

behaving as 'virtual communities' that develop 'communal memories'.

CASE STUDIES

Two organisations with close links to the selected case study projects are iEARN and

the Global Classroom Project fostered by the Victorian (Australia) Department of

Education.

IEARN

iEARN (the International Education and Resource Network) describes itself as 'a

global community of persons committed to its goal that learning and the quality of

life on the planet can be enhanced through meaningful collaborative work among

young people around the world.'(iEARN, 1997). iEARN is a non-profit organization

made up of over 4,000 schools in nearly 100 countries. The stated goal of IEARN is

to empower teachers and young people to work together online at very low cost using

the Internet and other new technologies. Since 1988, iEARN has pioneered on-line

school linkages to enable students to engage in meaningful educational projects with

peers in their countries and around the world. iEARN became involved in collabora-

tive projects when Internet access was in its infancy. They used very low-level tech-

nology initially because that was all that was available, but a commitment to this

approach became part of the community's philosophy in order to be accessible to as

many schools as possible, including those in the most economically disadvantaged

countries.

iEARN collaborative projects are developed and facilitated by practicing teachers.

Some teacher/facilitators organise a student management team, usually within their

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COLLABORATIVE ONLINE PROJECTS

662

own school, to help run the project. The project is promoted through the online

newsgroups or forums. Interested teachers register their classes. The classes then

work closely with the facilitating teacher and other participating classes to meet the

aims of the project. Communications can take place on the online newsgroups or

forums that use threaded conversations or by email. Many projects have supporting

websites to publish various aspects of the project.

Often hard copy publications are prepared by project facilitators and presented to

participating schools. Communications in these projects, for students from around

the world, are conducted in iEARN conferences (newsgroups). The closed conferences

(newsgroups) use only plain text and are available only to iEARN members – teachers

and students. They can be accessed with a very low bandwidth using offline

newsreaders to help reduce costs. The focus is on expanding students' knowledge and

their understanding of their world from humanitarian and environmental perspectives.

The projects are interpreted by individual teachers for use with their students. One of

the powerful aspects of this organisation is that it operates in an international forum.

There were 132 iEARN facilitated projects listed on their website for participation by

members in October, 2002.

THE GLOBAL CLASSROOM PROJECT

In November of 1994, the Department of Education in Victoria, Australia, decided to

support The Whalesong Foundation's design of a plan to co-ordinate and implement

a State-wide telecommunications project for all Victorian schools based on the

iEARN model. This became known as 'The Global Classroom Project'.

The Victorian Department of Education actively encouraged teachers in their educa-

tion system to participate in collaborative online projects with local and international

educators. Support was provided in a variety of forms through the Global Classroom

Project. Systemic support was provided in terms of advice on how to connect to the

Internet, the identification of teacher mentors to support new schools to participate

in collaborative projects and encouragement for early adopters to develop collaborative

projects and to act as project facilitators (Coppinger and Hocking, 1996). This

project was run through the Whalesong Foundation, by Coppinger and Hocking, both

of whom also had a leadership role in iEARN and, as a result the history of these two

groups is intertwined.

The Project website says that the Global Classroom Project is now in its ninth year.

During this time it says that thousands of schools from Australia and around the

world have participated in the range of collaborative online projects the Global

Classroom has to offer. Schools from as far away as Argentina, Sweden, France and

Latvia (just to mention a few) have collaborated and contributed to the teaching and

learning activities taking place in Victorian classrooms' (Global Classroom Project,

2004). The Global Classroom Project site says that it offers teachers access to

collaborative online projects covering all year levels, curriculum levels and skill

levels and that Victorian teachers can also call upon the expertise of the Global

Classroom mentors, who are there to support project coordinators.

MURIEL WELLS

CASE STUDY PROJECTS

The projects selected for the case study are the 'Environmental Mystery Competition',

the 'First Peoples' Project', 'Lewin, An Anthology of Children's Writing' and The

Teddy Bear Project. All have had links to iEARN and the Global Classroom Project at

some stage of their development.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL MYSTERY COMPETITION

In 1995 Kyneton Secondary College was selected as a participant in the Victorian

Department of Education's Global Classroom Project. The project theme involved

the exchange of data on habitat and water quality of local streams based on the Water

Watch model. At that stage most of the schools in the project (including Kyneton

Secondary College) did not have the equipment or expertise to carry out much of the

water testing and were all struggling to learn how to post messages to the iEARN

newsgroup. What was needed was a simple online project that would allow schools

to participate immediately without having to buy water monitoring equipment and

arrange field trips. As a consequence Kyneton SC devised and ran a simple environ-

mental competition that ran over several weeks on the iearn.aqua online conference. This

was well received and seemed to fill a need, so similar environmental competitions have

been run in each subsequent year. Over 2000 students from more than ten countries

have since been involved in the competitions. Many other schools have followed the

competition or used the material on the website in their classes but have not participated

directly in the competition.

The first Environment Mystery Competition that commenced in June 1998 attracted

participants from 44 schools in 8 countries. This competition won an award in the

1998 Ford One Planet Environmental Awards (EHNPS, 2002). Kimber and Deighton

(1999) argue that projects such as the EMC lend themselves to a wide variety of

teaching and classroom management strategies and provide the teacher with the

opportunity to explore many of the suggested middle school years teaching and

learning strategies and as such are considered very successful projects for students in

the middle years of schooling. The Environmental Mystery Competition was

originally established and coordinated by David Francis of Kyneton SC, but was later

facilitated by Eaglehawk North Primary School, both in Victoria.

The Environmental Mystery Competition is an online collaborative project that

involves a competition presented in episodes in the narrative genre. The episodes are

published on the project web site over a period of 6–8 weeks. Students use the clues

presented within the narrative to try to solve the mystery. Classes compete to be the

first to solve the environmental mystery.

Participating schools enter one team of from 2 to 30 students in the competition.

Each school emails one or more responses each fortnight and these are posted to the

web pages for all the other schools to see. Schools can discuss each other's ideas on

the web pages and so collaborate to solve the mystery. The first school to solve the

mystery is the winner.

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664

Episodes of the 'mystery'are written by the facilitating school. Initially the project

was run by Kyneton Secondary College, in southern Australia. They found the writing

of the episodes to be a significant body of work, with a real purpose and real

audience. The year 8 students wrote each episode that contained many clues to take

students off in various directions so that the mystery could eventually be solved, but

not too easily, so as to maintain the interest of the students over a six to eight week

period. The Kyneton students had to ensure that all the environmental and geographical

information that was included was accurate. They also had to respond to the

responses of students around the world. In 1995, in the first 'mystery', the platypus

disappeared from the river in the local Kyneton area. One school in Latvia wrote that

they thought that the ice on the river may have caused the platypus to disappear. The

Kyneton Secondary College students quickly learnt that they had to provide extra

information to support students from outside Australia whose experience of a climate

was very different from their own.

In this project the level of participation/collaboration is extremely high for the

facilitating school – writing, publishing (in the iEARN newsgroups and on the World

Wide Web) and communicating with participating schools. For the participating

schools the experience of participation in the Environmental Mystery Competition is

that students are expected to read each episode of the mystery over time, carry out

research to better understand the 'clues' within the narrative, and compare their

answers with the answers of others (which are also published). The level of partici-

pation for schools, other than the facilitating schools that write the episodes, could be

considered medium. The level of participation for these schools is more than for projects

in which students send writing and/or artwork to the facilitating school for publication

or environmental projects in which data is sent to be included in a large database for

analysis.

The Environmental Mystery Competition does not build a strong 'community of

practice'. Participating schools often engage deeply with the environmental and

geographical content but collaboration is limited to students' sending their solutions

to the mystery by email to the facilitating school. Solutions are added to the web site

but online conversations do not take in place in any form. Participants do not work

together to create an end product. As a result 'peripheral participation' does not lead

to the development of a community of practice.

THE FIRST PEOPLES' PROJECT

Ellis (2003) describes how in the First Peoples' Project 'Indigenous students on five

continents share their stories, poems, photographs and art work'. The First Peoples'

Project (King and Carter, 2002) operates within the iEARN network. The project

originated, in early 1996, as email and newsgroup discussions held between students

and teachers on issues of indigenous history and culture and was further developed

through discussions held at the iEARN International Teachers' Conference,

Budapest, July, 1996. The project links indigenous students around the world in a

MURIEL WELLS

range of activities: writing exchange, art exchange, discussion of issues relating to

indigenous people. The three main components of the project are:

●Writing Exchange: students write about topics of interest to them. This may

include a variety of formats, eg: poetry and prose. It also includes research and

reporting on historical or cultural events of the participating groups and the inter-

viewing of elders. This writing is compiled into a magazine, The Meeting Place,

which is then distributed to all participants. Selected pieces of writing are featured

on the project's WWW site. The magazine is published in English and Spanish. An

editorial team of students and teachers from Bairnsdale Secondary College,

Australia prepare the magazine for publication and a team of students from

Escuela CPEM #3 in Argentina undertake the translations.

●Art Exchange: students complete art work on a predetermined theme. In

December each group sends artwork to each of the other participating groups.

Each community holds an Indigenous Global Art Exhibition, featuring the

artwork they have received. A calendar is produced featuring the artwork from

each group. A world wide web site is produced featuring the art work from each

participating school:

●Humanitarian Effort: students in the project have worked to raise money to sup-

port two communities of indigenous students: Sumu in Nicaragua and Karen in

Thailand. Students in Victoria, Australia, New Mexico and Mississippi, U.S.A.

and Bangkok, Thailand have raised money to enable the purchase of school

supplies, a generator, blankets and the employment for four years of a teacher aide

in one of the schools they are working with. Recently 70–80 blankets were sent to

the Karen students from Australia, courtesy of QANTAS. These blankets were

produced as the result of another iEARN project, The World's Longest Scarf.

Students in New Mexico and Mississippi have also raised money to enable the

purchase of school supplies and a boat motor for Sumu communities in

Nicaragua.

The First Peoples'Project encourages the development of literacy, art and technol-

ogy skills and fosters understanding of the students' own culture and the experi-

ence of other indigenous cultures. It provides an authentic context in which to

develop these skills. It requires perseverance and a commitment to complete the

work in meeting timelines for editing and publishing. The students work collabora-

tively with other indigenous students from around the globe. It helps indigenous

students to see their cultural experiences from a wider perspective both politically

and historically.

In 2002 the project supported 10 students from the Karen community with schol-

arships to help them complete their secondary education, as well as continuing the

support for the teacher aide. More than 1000 students worldwide are active in the

project, with more than 40 coordinating teachers and their indigenous students

including:

●Choctaw, U.S.A.: Pearl River Elementary School, Red Water Elementary School,

Choctaw Central Middle School, Tucker Elementary School, Standing Pine

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Elementary School, Conehatta Elementary School, Bogue Chitto Elementary

School, Choctaw Central High School.

●Zuni, U.S.A.: A:Shiwi Elementary School.

●Karen, Thailand: Baan Nu-Se-Plo School, Umphangkee School, Samakkee

Witthaya School

●Mapuche, Argentina: Escuela CPEM#3

●Taos, U.S.A.; Taos Day School

●Cygany, Hungary: Children's Home, Pecs

●Nunga, Australia: Kaurna Plains Aboriginal School

●Nyoongar, Australia: Narrogin Senior High School

●Kunwinjku, Australia: Gunbalanya Community Education Centre

●Zapotec, Mexico: Escuela Matutina Benito Juanez

●Kek'Chi, Guatemala: ten schools in Guatemala participated as part of the

Educating The Girls' Program

●Koorie, Australia: Nowa Nowa Primary School, Bairnsdale Secondary College,

Bairnsdale Primary School, Bruthen Primary School, Paynesville Primary

School, Bairnsdale West Primary School, St. Mary's Primary School, Bairnsdale,

Swan Reach Primary School, Grange Secondary College, Woodglen Primary

School

●Wisconsin Woodlands Nations: The Indian Community School

King, the project facilitator, in a personal communication (2002), explained that

'Indigenous students have generally been marginalised in the education systems of

their nations. The education systems have neither recognized their cultural and his-

torical heritages nor have they provided a vehicle for success for indigenous stu-

dents.'She explains how The First Peoples' Project seeks to give indigenous students

a situation where they can engage in high-profile activity which both engages them

and creates an environment in their schools where their history, culture and their

communities are recognized and valued. Through creating situations of public recog-

nition, the First Peoples' Project endeavors to provide incentive to indigenous stu-

dents to achieve excellence in a range of skills, including research, writing and art.

The project seeks to provide a basis upon which the schools and the local indigenous

communities can work collaboratively and positively, a situation where the contribu-

tions of indigenous community members become an intrinsic part of the school cur-

riculum. The First Peoples' Project was a winner in the 1999 International ChildNet

Awards (London) and the Global Bangemann Challenge (Sweden).

THE FIRST PEOPLES' PROJECT AND

THE PARTICIPATING INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES

All activities and initiatives carried out in the First Peoples' Project rely on the

endorsement and approval of recognized authority within the relevant indigenous

communities. All portrayals of traditional stories, whether in written or visual form,

undergo an approval process with community elders and/or cultural officers of local

indigenous organizations. This approval relates to both the accuracy and cultural

MURIEL WELLS

sensitivity of student work. Maximum possible use is made of local indigenous

people in instruction in approaches to art and writing and in the treatment of tradi-

tional and oral histories. The Project emphasizes collaborative relations between

schools and their local indigenous communities, liaising closely with parents, elders

and with indigenous organizations (King, 2002).

The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, who run the largest and one of the most

tech-savvy tribal school systems in theUS, has participated in the First Peoples'

Project since its inception. For the Chocktaw Community, gaming revenues and other

economic initiatives have fueled a school building boom and the proliferation of

technology in the classroom. But 'prosperity'presents a new set of challenges for this

community. "I don't want kids to [stop] playing stickball or forget about traditional

dancing, cooking, or speaking their own language," says athletic instructor Jason

Bell. "I hope we can influence these kids that we need to keep our culture alive for

the next generation" (in Ellis, 2003). He sees the First Peoples' Project as provid-

ing the opportunity for these students to learn to use the newest technology to

celebrate their timeless culture and share its wisdom with the rest of the world, to

'value' their traditions and to increase communications with their tribal elders (Ellis,

2003). In this way this online collaborative project is supporting, in Wenger's terms,

the members of this indigenous community to participate in 'leading-edge learning'.

They would appear to be 'a well functioning community of practice'. They have a

'history of mutual engagement around a joint enterprise'. This is an ideal context for

leading-edge learning of a strong kind of communal competence along with a deep

respect for the particularity of experience. Their communities of practice are 'a priv-

ileged locus for the creation of knowledge' (Wenger, 1998, p. 214). It would seem

that sensitive and skilled project facilitation has resulted in the development of a

'well functioning community of practice'for indigenous communities who have par-

ticipated in the First Peoples'Project.

THE LEWIN PROJECT

Lewin is an anthology of students' writing from around the world. The anthology's

title comes from the language of the Ganai/Kurnai community (Australia) and means

Messenger. Students from around the world are invited to contribute their writing in

the various genres including poetry, autobiographies, opinionative, informative and

creative.

The project is for students of all ages. Lewin is currently coordinated by teachers

in Karachi, Pakistan and Bairnsdale, Australia and edited by students at Sultan

Mohammad Shah Aga Khan School Karachi, Pakistan and Bairnsdale Secondary

College, Australia. Students can write on any theme and in any format. Writing can

be emailed to the Coordinators or submitted via the IEARN newsgroup/forum called

iearn.lewin. Hard copies of the Lewin booklet are sent to participating schools in

November. Contributions to Lewin can also be viewed the Lewin website.

The Lewin Project is contributory for most of the participants in that they con-

tribute their writing which goes through an editing and publication process handled

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668

by the facilitating schools. In the first year of the project schools in Australia carried

out all the editing work and a management team of students at Keilor Downs

Secondary College handled the final stages of publication. As noted previously this

collaborative online project is currently facilitated by Bairnsdale Secondary College

teachers and students working closely with a team of students from Pakistan on the

editing and publication process. Recently the students from Pakistan have become

increasingly more active in the process moving from peripheral participation to full

participation. The project facilitator describes how students from Pakistan introduced

her to Instant Messaging, a service that the students had started using with the stu-

dents from Australia for editorial decision making. (King, 2002, personal communi-

cation, 18 November).

The project facilitator attempted to make this project more collaborative. King

says that 'We told all the student editors that they had several responsibilities includ-

ing making sure that every single contribution on the Lewin conference [newsgroup –

a threaded conversation] was responded to. This encouraged response from other

kids and also led to many of the kids around the world responding to other kids'

(King, 2002, personal communication, 8 November). This demonstrates one way in

which collaboration can be supported by online communications and contribute to

the development of a 'community of practice' and also demonstrates that Stolle's

(1995) argument that computers 'isolate us … and work against literacy and creativ-

ity' (p. 3) is unfounded.

THE TEDDY BEAR PROJECT

This stated aim of this collaborative online project is 'fostering tolerance and under-

standing of cultures different to your own' and at the same time it provides an audi-

ence and purpose for the development of literacy and technology skills. It is available

in English, Spanish and German. In this project teachers register their classes in an

online web database. The project facilitator matches classes with another class of

children of similar age but located in a different country. Initially the goal was to have

eight classes in the project but the concept has proved very popular. Students from

five years old to twenty years of age have participated including senior high school

and university students, with the latter being mainly second language students. Over

3000 classes from over 20 countries have participated since the project started in late

1996. In 1998 the project was awarded second place in the non-profit section of the

ChildNet International Awards in London.

After they are matched, classes establish electronic communications. Each class

sends a bear, or other soft toy significant to their geographical area or culture, by air-

mail to their partner class. An end product is not the focus, ongoing communication

by email is. The classes have equal levels of responsibility in order for an effective

collaboration to happen. The project demands regular and ongoing communications

from both partner classes.

Classes often send local artifacts, maps etc. with their teddy bear. Once it arrives

the bear writes home a diary regularly – at least once a week. The children provide

MURIEL WELLS

the bear with many experiences and write the diary entries that are sent by email to

the partner school. They also received emails from their bear and so learn about the

different culture. The diary emails provide authentic reading and writing opportunities

for the students. It is expected the students will learn about the traditions, culture, food,

climate and other aspects of the new country. For the younger students particularly the

arrival of the visiting bear and its belongings is a time of excitement. The bear

provides a tangible component to what may otherwise be a very abstract concept for

younger students.

Many of the classes that have participated in this project did so because they found

it a valuable way to improve their skills in English as a Second Language. For these

ESL students being able to take the time to formulate their language in their own time

and at their own pace in order to communicate with first language learners was found

to be a very non- threatening and valuable experience. As a result it is suitable for

older students as well as younger primary classes. This project is relatively open-

ended in that once classes are matched they can adapt the collaboration depending on

the age of the students, the interests of the teachers and students and the technology

level the schools have access to. As a result collaboration/participation is high

between the matched classes. They are dependent on each other and the quality of

their collaboration for this project to work for them. There is no facilitating school or

hard copy publication as a final outcome.

COLLABORATIVE ONLINE PROJECTS

AND STUDENT LEARNING

Becker (2000) argues that under the right conditions, where teachers are personally

comfortable and at least moderately skilled in using computers, where the school's

daily class schedule permits allocating time for students to use computers as a

legitimate part of class assignments, where enough equipment is available and con-

venient to permit computer activities to flow seamlessly alongside other learning

tasks, and where teachers' personal philosophies support a student-centered, con-

structivist pedagogy that incorporates collaborative projects, computers are clearly

becoming a valuable and well-functioning instructional tool.

The Jing-Yi Su et al. (2000) study, 'The Project-based Cooperative Learning on

Internet – A Case Study on Geology Education'carried out in Taiwan, found that par-

ticipation in collaborative online projects was very beneficial to their students partly

because their students tended to be very shy and lacked confidence when performing

live in front of teachers and their peers. Online collaboration allowed them the oppor-

tunity to think through responses in their own time and manner. They explain that:

Almost all students were interested in the learning mode centering at

Project-Based Cooperative Learning on Internet. They thought this

learning mode could stimulate them to think about wider range of

learning. We found distinct characteristics of the participating students.

Most students were shy, tense, and conservative. Teachers can design a

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670

learning project knowing these characteristics of students to help them

free from shyness and passiveness in learning process

(Jing-Yi Su et al . 2000).

Indigenous students who participated in the First Peoples' Project were often simi-

larly shy. Many of them also lack confidence partly as a result of being treated as

second-class citizens in their homeland and because they have generally been mar-

ginalised in the education systems of their nations. In the Teddy Bear Project many

of the classes from non English speaking backgrounds, also found this method of

using their second language for communication to be a non-threatening but mean-

ingful experience with a real audience for their writing and an authentic purpose for

their reading.

The First People's Project has been found to be highly beneficial in engaging what

is often described as the most disadvantaged, disengaged and at risk group of

students in Australia. King describes how participation in the First People's Project

led to improved students attendance rates, increased levels of engagement and closer

links to the local indigenous community Added to this the students demonstrated

increased responsibility for their own learning.

Collaborative online projects provide the opportunity for authentic learning in that

they provide a 'real audience' for student writing, art and communication. Bede

(2000), in presenting innovative ways that students work with ICT through reflective

inquiry, argues that at risk students' performance may be enhanced differentially

when various strategies are used including involving students in virtual communities

of practice, using tools similar to those in the workplace and enhancing student's

collaborative construction of meaning via different perspectives and shared experi-

ences. When students are involved in working collaboratively online with students in

another country to select, edit and publish the writing produced by children from

around the world as in the case of Lewin – an Anthology of Childrens's Writing, it could

be argued that they are meeting all the requirements above, as listed by Bede (2000).

Teacher-centred learning approaches often favor passive reception of knowledge,

whereas learner-centred approaches encourage a process of active inquiry. Learners

are best motivated to learn when they can take responsibility for their own learning,

as it is an active process. Interactive technologies encourage active learning and, with

the increased popularity of computers, today's students are learning with technology,

as opposed to learning about technology. As authors (Schweizer, 1999; Nelson,

2001) show, teachers can provide powerful learning opportunities through ICT when

students are responsible for their own learning and are active learners defining their

learning needs, finding information, assessing its value, building on their own

knowledge base and communicating their discoveries. Robertson (1999) claimed that

participation in collaborative online projects facilitated student-centred rather than

teacher directed learning. These online activities need to be carefully designed, giving

thought to the different preferred learning styles of students, cultural differences and

different language backgrounds. Through their work in iEARN projects teachers and

students learnt that our Argentinean members were insulted by the use of the term

MURIEL WELLS

'America' when referring to people from the USA. The Argentineans live in South

America and therefore argue that the term 'Americans' includes them too. Members of

this online community of practice learnt to respect cultural and language differences

such as these.

GENDER

The 1996 report on the Global Classroom Project (Coppinger and Hocking, 1996)

found that in 30.5% of participating schools, 91–100% of their female teachers

participated in their collaborative online projects. They argued that this reversed the

notion of the Internet being a 'male domain'. In over 50% of schools, 60% or more

of the teachers involved were female.

Tate (1999) claims that 'The collaborative approach has proved a very attractive

use of technology for female as well as male students. … The percentage of female

students electing to take these courses has dramatically increased at our school'. In

her school Tate argues that traditional content was brought alive to students by

electronic 'conversations' with students from countries like Japan who had a very

different understanding of, in one case, the A-Bomb. Mayer-Smith et al. (2000) note

the importance, in technology- rich classrooms, of'allowing time for student talk and

interaction, encouragement of self pacing and negotiation of well established rules of

operating in communities of practice'. The tendency of girls to enjoy highly verbal

environments and to be more accepting of rules than boys may go some way to

explain Tate's claims.

ADDRESSING DISADVANTAGE

The First Peoples' Project recognizes that indigenous students have generally been

marginalised in the education systems of their nations. The education systems have

neither recognized their cultural and historical heritages nor have they provided a

vehicle for success for indigenous students.

The First Peoples'Project seeks to give indigenous students a situation where they

can engage in high-profile activity which both engages them and creates an environ-

ment in their schools where their history, culture and their communities are recog-

nized and valued.

Through creating situations of public recognition, the First Peoples' Project

endeavors to provide incentive to indigenous students to achieve excellence in a

range of skills, including research, writing and art.

The project seeks to provide a basis upon which the schools and the local indigenous

communities can work collaboratively and positively, a situation where the contribu-

tions of indigenous community members become an intrinsic part of the school

curriculum. King and Carter (2001) describe how:

The Project focuses exclusively on the history, culture and stories of

indigenous communities. It provides a range of methods of expression for

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672

indigenous students. It exists with the permission and encouragement of

local indigenous communities and relies fundamentally on that support

and endorsement. It engages and relies on the active teaching involvement

of community artists, storytellers and artisans. It celebrates its successes

within the indigenous communities. It provides, within such a context,

high- motivation activities in writing, art, oral communication and pub-

lic presentation. While rooted in the students' communities, the Project

seeks to foster a pride within the students of bringing their achievements

before the wider public through exhibitions and publications. The Project

uses opportunities for public recognition to support students' confidence

and pride. For example in February 2001, Australia Post used artwork

from Australian participants as stamps on a prepaid envelopes issue

(King and Carter, 2001, n.p.).

The facilitators of this collaborative online project argue that the benefits derived

from participation in the First Peoples'Project address issues of disadvantage, disen-

gagement and alienation for indigenous students and their wider community. They

describe how parents have become more comfortable with the schools that their

students are attending and have participated in the educational program for the first

time. They also say that the project has shown itself to be one way in which

non-indigenous teachers and the schools in which they work can find a meeting place

with indigenous communities and their children. The project seeks to make the

students' stories a valid part of their school and vehicles through which they can

speak and through which they can learn (King and Carter, 2002).

Kimber (1999) asserts that introducing learning technologies into the learning

environment has been shown to make learning more student-centred, collaborative

and encourages cooperative, creative problem solving. He explains that one purpose

of the Global Classroom project in Victoria, Australia, was to develop wide-ranging

skills in students. He states that working collaboratively with others also provides

students with the potential to develop leadership, organisational, project manage-

ment, cooperation and negotiation skills. Gragert (2000, p. 4) also argues that:

… participation in collaborative online projects using technology:

●provides a new sense of community by encouraging and furthering con-

nections both within local schools, as well as far beyond school walls

●enables teachers to acquire new teaching/facilitating/learning tech-

niques and skills

●positions teachers to become a cross-cultural asset/resource for the

school and community

●motivates teachers by observing higher motivation and academic

achievement among students.

Research in cognitive science (Kehoe & Guzdia – no date) suggests that learning

outside of an applicable situation can lead to brittle or inert knowledge, that is,

MURIEL WELLS

knowledge that does not get transferred to new problems and new situations.

Collaborative online projects provide authentic contexts with real audiences and it

could therefore be expected that knowledge and/or skills developed in this context

would be robust and successfully transferred to new problems and situations. They have

the potential to encourage authentic and meaningful learning experiences for students.

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Allard, A. and Cooper, M. (2001) Critically Interrogating Classroom Constructions of 'Community'and

'Difference': A Case Study. Paper presented at the Australian Association of Research in Education

National Conference, Fremantle, Western Australia.

APCNews, the monthly newsletter of the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) – October

2002 No. 28 – received via email, October 29, 2002.

Becker, H. J. (2000) Findings from the Teaching, Learning, and Computing Survey: Is Larry Cuban Right?

http://www.crito.uci.edu/tlc/findings/ccsso.pdf (accessed October, 2002).

Bede, C. (2000) Emerging Influences of Information Technology on School Curriculum. Journal of

Curriculum Studies, vol. 32, 2, pp. 281–303.

Carr, J. (2001) Project Pillars, Foundations for Success in Online Curriculum Projects, Commonwealth

Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) through the EdNA Schools

Project, http://www.edna.edu.au/sibling/pillars/default.htm (accessed September 30, 2002).

Coppinger, B. and Hocking, A. (1996) Footprints: The Global Classroom 1995, Complete Report, 1996,

http://www.whalesong.org/literature/9601.html (accessed October, 2002).

Eaglehawk North Primary School Website, Environment Mystery Competition, http://www.ehnps.vic.

edu.au/EMystery02/EMyst02main.htm (accessed October, 2002).

Ellis, K. (2003) New Technologies Link Ancient Cultures. http://www.edutopia.org/php/print.php?id

Art_979&template printarticle.php (accessed September, 2003).

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Gragert, E. (2000) Expanding International Education through the Internet: No Longer Limited to the

Global Studies and Language Curriculum. http://www.iearn.org/gragertwhitepaper.html (accessed

September, 2002).

iEARN http://216.92.237.252/about/about_history.html (accessed October, 2002).

iEARN Australia Collaborative Projects. http://www.iEARN.org.au/collab.htm (accessed October, 2002).

iEARN (1997) Annual Report, http://216.92.237.252/about/about_reports97.html (accessed October, 2002).

iEARN conference/newsgroups – access is from available on apc nodes worldwide, or c2o.org.au or

http://www.iEARN.org.au or via web crossing forums @ iEARN.org (US).

Jing-Yi Su, Chen, W., Chen, F., and Tsai, Y. (2000) The Project-Based Cooperative Learning on Internet – A

Case Study on Geology Education. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computers in

Education/International Conference on Computer-Assisted Instruction 2000, pp. 303–308.

Kimber, R. and Deighton, N. (1999) Switched on Learning: Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning

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King, V. (2002) Personal communication, 18 November.

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Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. UK: Cambridge

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Mayer-Smith, J., Pedretti, E. and Woodrow, J. (2000) Closing the Gender Gap in Technology Enriched

Science Education: A Case Study. Computers & Education , vol. 35, 1, pp. 51–63.

Nelson, K. (2001) Teaching in the Cyberage: Linking the Internet and Brain Theory. Arlington Heights,

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Riel, M. (1994) Educational Change in a Technology-rich Environment. Journal of Research on

Computing in Education, Summer, 1994, vol. 26, 4, pp. 452–474.

Robertson, E. (1999) Integrating Learning Technologies and Collaborative Internet Projects into the

Curriculum, Anderson's Creek Primary School, Warrandyte, Victoria, Australia.

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Bairnsdale, Australia.

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Stolle, C. (1995) Silicon Snake Oil: Second Thoughts on the Information Highway. London: Macmillan.

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Tate, J. (1998) Faces of War. CD ROM.

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The First Peoples'Project, www.iearn.org.au/fp

The Lewin Project, www.iearn.org.au/lewin

The Teddy Bear Project, www.iearn.org.au/tbear

MURIEL WELLS

BACKGROUND

On-line role-play technology symbolizes achievements of using computer-mediated

tools and techniques in the delivery of higher education. Educators have long been

aware of the potential power of role-plays in promoting the development of professional

skills, knowledge and attitudes (see Bell, 2001). With the rapid growth and incorpo-

ration of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) within teacher education

courses, it is not surprising that arguments are being mounted that call for the intro-

duction of benchmarks or universal standards in designing and delivering on-line

education at universities (Cohen and Ellis, 2002; Oliver and Herrington, 2003).

There is increasing evidence that ICTs "are having an immense effect on academic

practices and expectations of students about the place, time and nature of their learn-

ing" (Kulski et al. and 2002, p. 1). Within this background, the Creating Thinking

Professionals (CTP) Project was initially conceptualised as a role-play simulation to

be delivered through a Web-based interface to support an undergraduate degree

program for early childhood educators at an Australian university. Specific aims and

educational objectives of the CTP Project included:

●To enable students to engage in critical thinking when relating to professional

issues/concerns within everyday contexts;

●To enhance teaching and learning of key professional concepts through problem

based learning strategies which allow students access to meaningful contexts as if

they themselves were direct participants in the ongoing dialogue; and

●To facilitate better access and understanding about critical debates in the field

though real life scenarios encountered by early childhood educators.

The ICT platform required to run this simulation was located in an interactive

Website that was powered by role-play software developed by Fablusi Pty Ltd. The

inbuilt design features of the Fablusi platform (see Ip, Linser and Naidu, 2001)

matched the objectives of the CTP Project and enabled the generation of a role-play

simulation tailor-made for those training to become early childhood educators. The

design features of the Fablusi platform of particular interest to the CTP Project

included its capacity to:

●deliver an authentic and active narrative for early childhood educators which was

both engaging and entertaining;

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AND RON LINSER

46. CREATING THINKING PROFESSIONALS: TEACHING

AND LEARNING ABOUT PROFESSIONAL

PRACTICE USING INTERACTIVE TECHNOLOGY

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 675–690.

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●ensure anonymity for learners through the provision of role specific and unique

user interface contained within the Project Website;

●engage multiple groups of learners (or players) simultaneously and therefore be

cost and time efficient;

●scaffold and replay content at any stage, and thereby enhance the potential for

learning through systematic and continuous reflection.

These characteristics meant that by using the Fablusi role-play software we were able

to create not only a relevant and meaningful simulation for early childhood educators,

but it also enabled us to retain the problem based learning approach of the CTP

Project. Accordingly, we used small collaborative groups to facilitate on-line learning

through peer socialization. In environments where there are constructivist frame-

works for problem solving activities, reflective dialogue, taking time for it to occur,

and student initiatives are all valued (Wilks, 2004, p. ix).

Called 'A Different Lunch', the on-line role-play, simulated a professional

dilemma that took place at a fictional childcare centre. The idea was that students

would play the role of one of ten key characters involved in the scenario presented

through a virtual environment very similar to the real world. The learning objectives

of the simulation were pre-defined and available to the players (ie, students), who

were required to create strategies to reach these objectives by interacting on-line with

the other characters in the role-play. The accompanying narrative placed on the spe-

cially designed Website for 'A Different Lunch' simulation included the following:

In this course, we have incorporated a new way of teaching/learning

about leadership matters of interest to early childhood educators

through the use of an interactive Website based around a dramatic inci-

dent in a child care centre called 'A Different Lunch'. This incident acts

as the stimulus for an on-line role-play simulation involving children and

adults associated with a community based child care centre. In teams of

3, students will assume the roles of the 10 key characters involved in the

role-play dramatisation of this incident. By stepping into the shoes of

another person, students have the opportunity to get in touch with the

cognitive and affective domains of interpersonal interactions. That is,

through their characters, students will activate their minds and hearts in

response to the evolving storyline. In this way, we hope the role-play sim-

ulation will bring to life contextually based realistic teaching/learning

opportunities encountered by contemporary early childhood educators.

Most Fablusi simulations begin with a text-based start up scenario presented on a

Website. One of the unique features of 'A Different Lunch' simulation however, was

that the start-up scenario was accompanied by dramatic visual imagery written by the

researchers to ensure the students would be engaged in a broad range of pertinent

issues. In addition to the text-based narrative, a short video dramatisation of the crit-

ical incident, together with photographic images and voice-overs that provided a

brief background narrative on each character, was also made available to students.

The flexibility and portability of the simulation was enhanced further by capturing

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

the scenario and character portraits on a CD-rom that was distributed to students at

the start, enabling them to revisit the scenario, at their convenience. Notations were

placed on the Website to remind students about the use of the CD-rom as follows:

The scenario that you received on the CD-rom raises a number of issues

and problems that can arise in a child care centre. The challenge con-

fronting you is to identify and address the issues and problems from the

perspective of your role and to deal with them creatively. For example,

are there health and safety issues involved in bringing food into the

childcare centre? However, it is just as important, to creatively explore

other problems that you think are related to the issues raised on the CD-

rom. You can do this by having your character create a problem for some

other roles to solve (and this exemplifies the issue(s) you have in mind)

and send them a sim-mail. If you are unsure about it run it by a modera-

tor (using sim-mail) and we'll work out the processes required together.

In order to maximise the learning potential of this simulation, particularly the com-

munication and interpersonal skills required by early childhood educators (see for

example, Jalongo and Isenberg, 2000; Jensen and Kiley, 2000; and Ebbeck and

Waniganayake, 2003), trained actors were used in the video. In doing so, we hoped

that the visual imagery – especially the physical appearance, dress and body language,

would enhance the authenticity of the narrative and general production quality of the

dramatisation.

Students, in teams of two to three, participated as one of the ten characters associated

with the start-up scenario. The simulation was on-line and interactive for a period of

three weeks. This meant that over 21 days, students played their roles on-line in

response to the evolving story line. By playing the role of one of the key characters

including a child, her parents, centre staff, management committee members, a

government adviser and a newspaper journalist, students were able to discover

multiple perspectives in responding to the same incident. In adopting a child's per-

spective for instance, students had to call on their knowledge of child development.

Likewise, playing the roles of the parents and centre staff required students to consider

ethical, legal and industrial obligations of early childhood educators as appropriate

and applicable in real world contexts.

The CTP Project required students to access the role-play simulation Website

daily. A training session on the use of the ICT tools contained within this Website was

presented before the simulation started. Together with resources placed on the

Website, there was sufficient visual imagery and text based information to bring to

life each character to facilitate the role-play on-line. Resources such as on-line journal

articles and government documents such as childcare licensing regulations and the

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, were hot-linked to the Website to provide

easy access and support students to reflect critically and extend their knowledge and

understanding about major debates of relevance to early childhood educators.

It is important to note that our simulation was delivered side-by-side with weekly lec-

tures. In effect, the simulation replaced the conventional face-to-face tutorials/seminars.

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This included the time involved in training students to use the ICT tools driving the

simulation, preparing and playing their character roles and engaging in reflecting and

reviewing the processes of learning. Our aim was to promote critical thinking about

early childhood matters in a holistic way. This required students to examine their own

and others' professional and moral behaviour and beliefs as displayed through their

on-line characters. Their combined reflections and reactions directed the path of the

role-play simulation – there was no set script to follow.

At the end of the simulation, all students were required to participate in a face-to-face

gathering described as a 'community conference'. This meeting served two purposes.

First, it provided a forum to discuss issues of relevance to the characters involved in

the role-play. During this part of the community conference, students presented their

interests and concerns as a position paper (see reflective essay assignment described

later in this chapter). It was delivered in character by each of the key players, as if this

was a public meeting convened by the center's management committee to resolve

issues arising from the critical incident and as played out during the on-line simula-

tion. Second, once the proceedings of the community conference were closed, the

meeting became a forum for the debriefing of students and academic staff. The

discussions during this debrief included problems, opportunities, costs and benefits

of this teaching and learning strategy, and the nature of the experience that partici-

pants underwent in using this on-line role-play simulation. Evaluation data rein-

forced the importance of the community conference as an essential design feature

that contributed to the overall success of our on-line simulation.

MEASURING STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Assessment requirements of the degree program were systematically incorporated into

the Web environment to maximise students'interest and motivation in participating in

the simulation. As McLoughlin and Luca (2001, p. 418) have reflected, few will

contest the centrality of formal assignments in determining students' satisfaction

with university courses. In our case, assessment consisted of reviewing and reflecting

on both factual and conceptual knowledge and understandings about working as an

early childhood educator in Australia, as well as procedural skills in participating in

team work and using on-line resources.

There is sufficient flexibility within the Fablusi platform to vary assessment to

meet the particular teaching and learning objectives of a given course of study. In our

case, assessment consisted of both group and individual tasks and students were

expected to:

●design and publish an expanded role profile on the project Website

●maintain a specified number of on-line messages within the Website

●write a position paper from the perspective of the character played by each

team; and

●write a reflective essay – the only task assessed on an individual basis.

These tasks were primarily aimed at enhancing students' competencies in reflecting

critically and working with others in collaborative ways – two essential dimensions

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

of an early childhood educator's every day practice. A brief description of each of the

assessment activities, including the proportion of marks allocated, is presented next.

Expanded role profile (10%): Students were required to extend the profile of their

character by taking into account their experiences within early childhood settings/

organizations. They then published them on the project Website. These characteristics

could be either positive or negative, and students had to act out the implications of

their chosen profile throughout the simulation. The objective of the expanded role

profile was to get the students to 'own' their character and recognise their rights and

responsibilities as a stakeholder involved in the decision-making within the 'fictional'

world of the child care centre they were about to enter. It also allowed other players

to evaluate the characteristics of the roles and plan how they would approach and

interact with them during the simulation.

On-line message output (15%): During the simulation, sim-mails and forum

messages contained within the Website (restricted and accessed only by students and

staff involved in this project) formed the primary method of communication between

roles. Participants could also use 'chat' to communicate with other roles and a notepad

to communicate with other team members involved in playing the same role. Sim-mail

and forum messages constituted formal communication paths that were assessed while

chat and the notepad were informal communication paths that were not marked. Only

messages that were sent to other characters in the role-play were considered for assess-

ment purposes. A minimum of 10 messages per team per week and a maximum of 25

was set primarily to make the tasks of reading, moderating and assessing manageable

for the moderators and to ensure that the students had an appropriate work load in keep-

ing with the course requirements. All formal messages connected with the role-play

were accessible by the teaching team who performed the role of simulation moderators.

Position paper (20%): Each team was required to produce a position paper from

the perspective of their assigned character or stakeholder role within the simulation.

These papers were published on the Website at or near the end of the live simulation

so that everyone could read these before coming to the community conference. In the

position paper, each character had to identify three issues of concern arising from the

evolving story-line and recommend changes to policy and practice that could

be implemented to resolve the concerns arising at the fictional child care-centre. The

topics to be covered within the position papers referred to early childhood practice

and were set by the teaching team. These topics were: parent-staff relationships;

staff-child relationships; centre staffing; centre management; food and nutrition; as

well as media and public relations.

Reflective essay (50%): Students were required to independently think through

underlying moral and ethical considerations of the simulated scenario and critically

analyse the experience as a way of learning about matters of interest to early child-

hood educators. It was recommended that the focus of this discussion be based on,

conflicting rights, social justice, or communication, as these topics are embedded

within the professional practice of contemporary early childhood educators.

The first three assignments were posted and assessed on-line. Individual student's

grades and marks were allocated via an excel spreadsheet that was linked to the

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Project Website to minimise the manual handling and processing of assignments. In

this way, the Fablusi platform has the capacity to provide progressive overviews of

students' work and this, in turn, allowed us to identify changes in learners' under-

standing, commitment, reflections on their learning, and provide appropriate feed-

back. Using the just-in-time problem based learning model, staff were able to adapt

on-going lecture content and learning activities in response to the developing

dialogue throughout the simulation.

OUR LEARNINGS FROM THE SIMULATION

In discussing the effectiveness of using simulations in higher education programs,

Cameron and Wijekumar (2003, p. 119) stated that:

Simulations have been found to significantly improve knowledge transfer

(Kozma, 1992; White, 1994). This type of discovery-based learning using

simulations has been shown to increase understanding of abstract con-

cepts (Rieber, 1996) and increase student motivation (Brewer, 1982).

In keeping with a constructivist framework, in our simulation, the students (ie, the

learners) participated as "active agents in the process of knowledge acquisition" (de

Jong and van Joolingen, 1998, p.179). During the three weeks when the simulation

was 'alive', any initial hesitancy with the use of technology – primarily concerned

with mastering the different tools and resources available on the Website, soon dissi-

pated as students became actively engaged in playing their roles. There were many

students who were disappointed when the simulation ended and the 'game' had to

stop due to coursework deadlines.

It has been further argued that "while the use of simulations in education has been

studied for decades, its use in an on-line learning environment has not been widely

explored" (Cameron and Wijekumar, 2003, p. 119). At the end of the course, an

anonymous on-line evaluation instrument was administered through the Website to

obtain objective feedback from participating students. Using this data, collected over

two years with four groups of students who participated in the simulation, we now

discuss key aspects of using on-line technologies in higher education realised

through the CTP Project and consider implications for further research.

Those who have experienced the benefits of on-line education such as Cameron

and Wijekumar (2003), King and McSporran (2002), and McLoughlin and Luca

(2001), have tended to favour constructivist frameworks where the authenticity of the

narrative, group work, learner control and scaffolding of knowledge are emphasised

in the design and delivery of the teaching and learning. As Oliver and Herrington

(2003, p. 112) noted:

The strength of constructivism as a theory of learning lies in its descrip-

tion of learning as a process of personal understanding and meaning

making which is active and interpretative.

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

Having adopted a constructivist approach in our simulation, we asked students to rate

its usefulness in terms of:

●knowledge and understandings they had gained in relation to professional practice

matters of interest to early childhood educators, and

●overall learning benefits of having participated in the CTP Project.

The findings from the evaluation related to four topics on early childhood issues are

presented in Figure 46.1.

The development of sound partnerships between parents and professionals is

central to the work of early childhood educators (Anning and Edwards, 1999; Ebbeck

and Waniganayake, 2003; Jalongo and Isenberg, 2000; and Jensen and Kiley, 2000).

Our simulation contained a variety of opportunities for students to interact with each

other as either parents or professionals depending on the character allocated to each

team. Through the simulation students were able to "practice skills, explore sensitive

issues, expose behaviours and sensitize participants to other ideas, attitudes and

values" (Bell, 2001, p. 256). As can be seen in Figure 46.1, on all four areas of early

childhood practice identified, the majority of students rated the effectiveness of the

simulation as being either high or very high. These findings augur well in supporting

the use of on-line simulations to promote understanding about content, skills and

values relevant to early childhood educators.

We acknowledge, however, that a minority of students rated the effectiveness of

the simulation as either very low or low as shown in Figure 46.1. One possible expla-

nation for this finding is that some students may have found some matters emerging

from the simulation concerned with either parent – staff relationships or human

rights issues for instance, either too abstract or complex due to language barriers or

personal attitudes and belief systems. Variations in learning styles associated with

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CREATING THINKING PROFESSIONALS

Figure 46.1. Effectiveness of the simulation in learning about early childhood matters

28%

37%

28%

10%

56%

29%

10%

29%

49%

10%

12%

29%

46%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Parent-Professional

Relationships

Issues & Pressures of

working in EC field

Limitations of professional

autonomy

Understanding Human Rights

issues

Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

682

participants' diverse cultural backgrounds, English language proficiency and compe-

tence in using technology can also influence both learning outcomes as well as the

overall engagement in the simulation – especially the smooth flow of the interactions

(Bell, 2001; Johnson, 2001).

It would also be useful to find out through any future simulation whether perceived

effectiveness of the simulation is related to the assigned character or the specific

roles students played. For instance, Bell (2001) raises questions about role engage-

ment in terms of students' cultural values and beliefs. In our simulation, although

cultural diversity and human rights concerns were integral to the storyline, available

data do not shed any light on the extent to which students found it easy or difficult to

play the role of someone from another cultural background. It is also possible that

role engagement could vary according to learners' interests as well as competence

and awareness of options available to the same characters in the real world. For

instance, dealing with the media and managing public relations is a relatively new

area of professional practice for early childhood educators (Ebbeck and

Waniganayake, 2003). Students' feedback suggest that whilst some were keenly

interested in playing the role of the journalist in our simulation, others were less

comfortable in this role due to the lack of first-hand experience of working with

the media.

As discussed earlier, critical thinking competencies are also reflected in the

integrated assessment requirements incorporated into the simulation design. As

McLoughlin and Luca (2001, p. 421) wrote:

It can be argued that the move towards authentic assessment paradigms

has been accelerated by technology with its capacity to cope with a

broad array of activities, tasks and forums for collaboration, dialogue

and student-centred learning.

McLoughlin and Luca's sentiments are also supported by evaluation data derived

from the analysis of the overall benefits of our simulation, and are depicted in

Figure 46.2. When the data on those who used the ratings of either 'agree' or

'strongly agree' are taken together, Figure 46.2 shows that almost three quarters or

more of the students supported the use of the simulation in terms of increasing

interactions with peers (ie, 80%), overcoming space and time limitations of studying

at university (ie, 73%) as well as in helping students to organise large amounts of

information (ie, 85%) and providing a holistic approach to learning (ie, 91%).

Figure 46.2 also shows that one of our design assumptions concerned with pro-

moting interactions between students and academic staff was not fully supported by

the data collected. That is, almost half the participating students (ie, 43%) did not

believe that the simulation had enabled them to relate better to us as their lecturers.

This finding surprised us because as the simulation moderators, academic staff was

always accessible to students on-line. However, it must be noted that we did not have

a direct role as characters in the role-play. Moreover, our role as moderators during

the simulation and as lecturers outside the simulation was perhaps not easily distin-

guishable. These factors may have influenced the nature of interactivity between

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

students and us. Most of the initial interactions between moderators and students,

though clearly not all, were concerned with the provision of technical support and

clarification of course requirements. As such, this may have impacted on students'

perception of the role of lecturers, particularly during the later stages of the simula-

tion when students were competently and intensively engaged in the role-play.

Broader concerns such as authority relations in the learning process reflected in these

findings cannot be easily de-aggregated in this data set and have been addressed

elsewhere (see Linser et al ., 2004).

Notwithstanding the feedback on teacher-learner interactions, there is strong

evidence that the simulation allowed increased communication between peers and

enhanced a sense of community among the players. Virtual communities, such as that

which was created within our simulation, are in essence designed specifically to

bring together those separated by geographical locations and time zones. The overall

design of our simulation reflected a global classroom where students had easy access

to diverse and boundless resources across the Internet. It has also been shown that

"… networked communication has increased the parameters of what is known as a

community" (Palloff and Pratt, 1999 cited in Johnson, 2001, p.51). Participation in

our type of role-play simulation can facilitate a sense of a learning community

because the emphasis is placed on "process development over market or product

development" (Liedka, 1999 cited in Johnson, 2001, p.46). In our case, the learning

community that emerged from the interactions on-line, saw the students relating to

one another as stakeholders of a childcare centre community – an authentic learning

environment, familiar to contemporary early childhood educators.

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CREATING THINKING PROFESSIONALS

Figure 46.2. Overall benefits of the simulation

Note: SA  Strongly Agree, A  Agree, D Disagree and SD Strongly Disagree

10%

70%

20%

32%

41%

24%

10%

36%

46%

12%

73%

12%

32%

59%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Increased

interaction with

peers

Overcome space

& time

limitations

Relate better to

lecturers

Organise large

amounts of

information

Wholistic

approach to

learning

SA A D SD

684

Our simulation also offered multiple channels of expression and connectivity with

and between peers as well as academic staff. Johnson (2001, p.46) commented that:

In the past few years, group work and collaboration using on-line

environments has become an important research topic because of the

interconnectivity enabled by the Internet, and more specifically, the

World Wide Web (WWW).

He went on to say that "on-line groups are usually self selected, rather than being true

random selection in an experimental design" (Johnson, 2001, p.52). In our simula-

tion, team membership was mostly randomly selected on-line. However, being in

their fourth year of study at the university, many students were either friends or were

at least aware of each other. The extent to which these factors impacted on promoting

and/or hindering collaboration is difficult to know. Qualitative feedback from the

participating students revealed that players knowing each other prior to the simulation

contributed to successful negotiation over differences of opinion and in determining

operational strategies on how to play the game. This pattern is supported by others

who note "collaboration was richer among students who knew each other" (Oliver

et al., 1998 cited in Johnson, 2001, p.55).

Issues pertaining to safety on-line was another key consideration raised through

our simulation. At one level, privacy and confidentiality of individuals within the

simulated world itself led to concerns about who can get access to whose material

during the simulation. For instance, security difficulties may occur especially in

terms of the authentication of learner input. The initial registration process contained

within the Fablusi software system, however, enabled us to keep track of an individual's

on-line input throughout the simulation. Others have also raised concerns about the

permanence of messages posted on-line (see Bell, 2001 and Johnson, 2001). The

Fablusi software resolves this issue by keeping all simulation-based messages

securely stored on the system as well as by providing output in un-editable CD-rom

format.

Although it did not seem to be an issue in our project, it is important to keep in mind

that some studies have shown that "lack of trust resulted in individual work with little

collaboration, worker dissatisfaction and team attrition" (Johnson, 2001, p.50). In our

case, however, the promotion of skills and understanding about working collabora-

tively was deliberately built into the simulation design to enhance the authenticity and

application of learnings derived from the CTP Project (Waniganayake et al ., nd).

IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Analysis of the data derived from this study, whilst adding to the body of literature on

the use of on-line simulations in higher education, also underscores the importance

of continuous professional development for staff in the design and implementation of

technology driven education programs. The rapid pace of advancement in on-line

teaching tools and techniques demands the upgrading of both human and technical

resources. Institutions need to allow for these matters to be systematically built into

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

their operational plans in order to harness the rich potential being offered by modern

technology. Accordingly, we put forward three issues that warrant further investiga-

tion in promoting the use of on-line technology in higher education.

Role of the on-line teacher

As academic staff, we play many roles: teacher, coach, instructor, mentor or a facili-

tator, administrator and others. In our project, both students and staff shared respon-

sibility for keeping abreast of the products of learning emanating from the

simulation. Oliver and Herrington (2000 cited in Johnson, 2001, p.55) comment that

the "content of asynchronous discussion can become poor and superficial without

coaching and scaffolding". This is particularly important because the volume of

information generated by an on-line simulation can be large and complex. Multiple

perspectives generated by having ten stakeholders in the simulation may also have

implications for cognitive overload for the learners (de Jong & van Joolingen, 1998,

p.195). When taken together with Bell's (2001, p.11) concerns about "what are the

appropriate participants numbers and time-frame" for an on-line simulation, these

matters signify the need for further investigation and close monitoring during any

subsequent simulations of 'A Different Lunch'. Similarly, when and how best to

scaffold learning that emerges during on-line simulations remains a continuing

challenge.

Other researchers have raised the need for educators to be adaptable in embracing

new technology in order to be successful in porting teaching programs to the on-line

environment. "As the growth of this area explodes, we must examine the pedagogical

strategies that can be used for on-line teaching" (King and McSporran, 2002, p.49).

Adaptability issues are, however, deep seated – some hate change of any type, and

others fear technology in part because of the ease of accessibility and transparency in

making the information available to large audiences. Nevertheless, as King and

McSporran (2002) have eloquently argued, the aims of teaching, regardless of how

and where, either in-person or on-line, are the same. Given the importance of the

instructor's interpersonal skills to engage in any type of teaching, King and

McSporran (2002, p.53) concluded by declaring that "on-line teaching demands

hands-on commitment". As moderators, this demand was clearly borne out by our

simulation experiences. (For a full discussion on the role of moderators in on-line

simulations see Linser et al ., 2002.)

Methods and tools used in on-line education

Whilst there is some consensus about the principle of direct contact in promoting

better learning, there is no agreement about the strategies and/or the mix of methods

and tools that could be deployed in delivering on-line education programs.

Fischer (1998) states that face-to-face contact is essential for rapport. Hammond

(1998) makes a case for multi-modal learning, that is, face-to-face mixed with asyn-

chronous learning. According to Borthick and Jones (2002), synchronous environ-

ments provide a better learning environment than either asynchronous environments

or traditional classrooms (cited in Johnson, 2001, p.56).

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In our simulation, we used all these methods: forums, published presentations and

sim-mail provided asynchronous contact, whilst 'chat rooms' within the Website

made possible synchronous text communication. Apart from the pre-simulation

training sessions as well as the community conference at the end of the simulation

organised by the academic staff, most face-to-face contact between students occurred

spontaneously or by arrangement, at their convenience. We did not however evaluate

the merits of each of these communication strategies as a separate entity.

One cannot also ignore the finding of others who state "the lack of face-to-face

contact in text-based communication tools can actually be an advantage because this

environment suppresses traditional group norm behaviour" (Johnson, 2001, p.56)

and instead promotes diversity and creativity. To what extent is face-to-face contact

necessary or essential in promoting collaboration and learning? If face-to-face con-

tact is essential, then what is the nature and frequency of this type of connectivity that

is required to optimise learning? "Others argue that no single design or perspective is

adequate for the design of technology enhanced learning environments" (Sfaard,

1998 cited in McLoughlin & Luca, 2001, p.418).

Another point of consideration is, to what extent does the on-line input have to be

supplemented by other technological tools such as Web-based audio and video

conferencing? For instance, in our case, the scenario that was the stimulus for the

simulation was presented to the students in the form of an audio-visual dramatisation

not simply as a text-based situation as in the case of other on-line simulations. Collis

and Moonene (2001 cited in McLoughlin and Luca, 2001, p.419) "conclude that

while learning gains cannot be proved, they still remain optimistic about technology

integration" into university based teaching and learning. An experimental study has

to be put in place to compare and contrast the adequacy of learning outcomes derived

from deploying different methods and tools in on-line simulations. Until such time,

we can only state that technology offers more options or multiple channels for

expression and engagement in information processing by both academic staff and

students.

Quality assurance of on-line education

It is possible that as the demand for and popularity of on-line training expand, the

interest and use of role-play simulations may increase. It seems that university wide

application of on-line education programs are being linked together for benchmark-

ing purposes (McNaught et al ., 1999; McNaught et al., 2000; and Oliver, 2001). As

the attention on university-based on-line education intensifies, McLoughlin and

Luca (2001, p.425) ask, "Will technology be able to meet the future challenges of the

quality assurance agenda?" They advocate an approach where student involvement in

knowledge construction is emphasised and benchmarks with clear expectations that

reflect real world living are established.

Existing studies within different disciplines such as computer science (Cameron

and Wijekumar, 2003), education (Bell, 2001), political science (Linser, 2004), and

engineering (see de Jong and van Joolingen, 1998) clearly demonstrate the variable

uses of on-line role-play simulations to promote skill development in diverse

MANJULA WANIGANAYAKE ET AL.

professions. There is strong evidence to suggest that one of the key indicators of

success in using simulations is their capacity to motivate learners by simulating

authentic learning environments (Orbach, 1979 cited in Cameron & Wijekumar,

2003, p.118). When looking at commercially available simulation packages, it is

therefore important to assess their flexibility and capacity to meet the goals and

objectives of a specific training program. In our case, the Fablusi platform had the

capacity to emulate real world operations within the context of an organization such

as a child care centre, a primary employer of early childhood educators. Those such

as Collis (1997) reiterate the importance of 'pedagogical re-engineering' when using

on-line technology, so that course content is revised to meet the learning objectives

instead of repackaging content simply to fit a given form.

Oliver and Herrington (2003, p.111) contend that although much effort, enthusi-

asm and time are dispensed in developing on-line education packages, "too often the

opportunities and advantages of the use of technology in the learning process are

poorly exploited". On the other hand, there is also concern that pressure on academic

staff to "master new technology" by developing and extending their on-line skills can

become overwhelming (Atkinson and Brown, 1997 cited in Kulski et al ., 2002, p.2).

In writing about the evaluation of the introduction of a university wide on-line learning

system at RMIT University, McNaught et al., (1999, np) stated, "Staff workload is a

critical issue " and called for "more local support for staff and students".

To ensure excellence in quality in on-line education, provision of continuous training

and timely assistance to both academic staff and students must be guaranteed. This

view is supported by those such as Bennett et al. (1999) and Kulski et al . (2002, p.1)

who highlight the importance of establishing "institutional support structures to cater

for the emerging professional development needs of their academic staff " and

outlines the benefits of adopting a "strategic approach to centralised support" for all

concerned – the institution, the staff and the students.

CONCLUSION

Much of the current literature on on-line teaching and learning relies on the discussion

of case studies of interventions launched at various higher education institutions such

as ours. The extent to which one can generalise and debate the potential of on-line

learning based on these findings is somewhat limited because of the contextual vari-

ables particular to each case study such as the CTP Project. With the growing interest

in developing standards and benchmarks for on-line teaching and learning (Cohen and

Ellis, 2002; Oliver and Herrington, 2003) it is also possible that the richness and

creativity contained in the case study designs of on-line education could be lost.

Just as much as the imposition of a system-wide curriculum can stall or stymie the

advancement of classroom practice, it is also possible that top-down bureaucratic

standards that force academics to converge their on-line designs around a single plat-

form could thwart initiative and experimentation with diverse technology and enthu-

siasm to learn from meaningful experiences. Herein lies the danger that

standardisation could constrain the potency of constructivist principles that has

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driven much of the on-line learning revolution to become nothing more than mere

rhetoric. Likewise, as our findings suggest, the impact of on-line education on the

teacher-learner relationships require critical review and reconceptualisation. For

instance, if the current trend in learner centred pedagogy continues to direct on-line

education, is it possible that technology could eliminate the need for academic

instructors all together? Large scale evaluations of on-line role-play simulations sus-

tained over a period of time are needed if we are to strategically plan and address

major dilemmas such as these which can change the nature of higher education as we

know it today. As educators, we need to go beyond the technological advances of

today in planning for pedagogical improvements of tomorrow.

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689

CREATING THINKING PROFESSIONALS

INTRODUCTION

This chapter explores the findings from a study designed to pursue opportunities to

strengthen pre-service teacher education. At the heart of the study was the identifi-

cation and exploration of several tensions that emerge from the practicum experience

with a view to examining and reducing the reported gap between teacher education

course-work at university and the experiences of student-teachers during their in-

school placements.

A particular focus of the study was the use of an integrated technological format,

WebCT, used to promote discourse and collaboration in the pursuit of providing

additional support for student-teachers (Gardner and Williamson, 2002, 2003).

WebCT incorporates a range of learning tools: information can be made available

through the lecture tool; interaction is facilitated through real-time chat, asynchro-

nous discussion during which contributors may choose anonymity, and e-mail; and

student-teachers can be engaged in reflection and the provision of feedback

through completing surveys (WebCT, 2005). The WebCT survey tool was used to

gather sets of data from 43 third year and 68 fourth year Tasmanian student-teachers

in 2002. Each data set was allocated a number for identification purposes.

Roman numerals denote which item in the survey elicited each response. In cases

of data from discussion threads each contribution is identified with the message

number.

The third year practicum (School Experience 3 – SE3) in the four-year Bachelor of

Education (undergraduate) Program at the University of Tasmania comprises 35 days

of in-school experience divided into two phases. The initial phase of 10 days is gen-

erally undertaken at the commencement of the school year for teachers (February);

student-teachers return to the same placement to complete the second phase of

25 days towards the end of the first school term (April-May). The fourth year

practicum (SE4/Internship) generally occurs in one seven-week block in Term 2 and

comprises a supervised practicum phase of 10 to 15 days followed immediately by

the Internship phase, without direct supervision, of 20 to 25 days. SE4/Internship is

undertaken either as an individual placement or as a paired placement in which

student-teachers are expected, during the Internship phase, to undertake a minimum

of 80 or 100 percent of the teacher's normal load respectively. Table 47.1 provides a

summary of the structure of the final two practica.

691

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

47. THE COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH:

"JUST WHAT IS IT THAT I AM DOING?"

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 691–710.

692

IN TOUCH FROM A DISTANCE: THE USE OF WEBCT

Student-teachers used several tools that enabled them to communicate with each other

at times convenient for each of them and at regular times when a university staff mem-

ber was available as advertised through the calendar. For example, the discussion tool

enabled student-teachers to log in at any time to read others'messages and to respond

to these, or to initiate discussion about a new topic. Student-teachers could log in to

one chat room and converse with their peers and the university staff member at speci-

fied times, or enter one of four other chat rooms and conduct conversations with peers

only. At the conclusion of each of the two phases of their school placements student-

teachers were invited to respond to surveys. Questions were asked to encourage stu-

dent-teachers to: consider their professional learning and to set goals; make links

between their learning at university and in schools; provide feedback on their per-

spectives of helpful and unhelpful mentoring and supervision practices and the role of

WebCT in providing support for placements; provide feedback about their experi-

ences of either the individual placements model or the paired placement model

(SE4/Internship only); and offer advice to university staff, and for dissemination to

future student-teachers, about improvements to the School Experience Program.

TENSIONS

An overarching theme in the student-teachers' responses to the surveys was tension .

Tensions in several forms were evident in: first, incongruent values placed by a range

of practicum participants on theory and practice; second, perceptions of the importance

of theory and practice; third, the complex process of learning to teach, including refer-

ence to the role of learning and communication technologies; fourth, the disparate roles

of the colleague teacher as mentor and as assessor; and finally, the influence of positive

relationships, or of tensions in these relationships, on communication and learning.

Tension 1: Incongruent values

Practicum placements occur in a context characterised by entrenched frictions

between university and school peoples' perceptions of each other's work (Calderhead

and Shorrock, 1997; Griffin, 1999). Student-teachers in many countries indicate that

the practicum is the most valuable element of their courses (Ben-Peretz, 1995); work

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

TABLE 47.1 Structure of the practica for the third and fourth years of the Bachelor of Education

Program

Practicum Phase 1 – days Phase 2 – days Model – teaching load

(SE4/Internship only)

SE3 10 (during 25 (during April–May)

February)

SE4/Internship 10–15 leading into 20–25 (making a total of Individual – increasing

Internship 35 days in phases 1 & to a minimum of 80%

2) Paired – 100%

(during July – August)

in the areas of the practicum and professional learning, however, typically is not

valued sufficiently in schools or universities (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Zeichner,

2002). Teachers characteristically report that they are more influenced by learning

from informal sources such as teaching experiences and opportunities for collegial

collaboration rather than from formal sources of learning, for example, formal

pre-service or in-service courses (Conley and Goldman, 1998; Feiman-Nemser,

2001; Hargreaves, 1997), and that informal learning correlates directly with class-

room proficiency (Morris and Williamson, 2000).

University-based teacher educators must contend with the barrier brought about

between themselves and their school colleagues by being accountable "for the making

of a profession" (Ramsey et al ., 2001, p. 99) of which they are not members; this chal-

lenge contributes, in part, to the divide between the two groups and institutions.

Ramsey and his colleagues noted that implementing sustained models of professional

workplace experience, similar to other professional models of professional preparation,

would most likely pave the way to the increased standing of teacher educators.

Australian government action has also produced a negative impact on the

practicum. Exploitation of the trend for school personnel to accept greater responsi-

bility in the supervision and mentoring of student teachers has diminished the role

university staff can play in student-teachers' learning and, too often, internal univer-

sity decisions have reduced funding for faculties of education, despite increased stu-

dent-teacher numbers. The devaluation of the work of professional learning and the

practicum (Liston, 1995; Tom, 1997) has resulted in a form of practicum that is not

necessarily as valuable as the chief participants may believe it to be (Ben-Peretz,

1995; McIntyre et al ., 1996).

Incongruent values underpin a range of other more specific tensions.

Tension 2: Theory and practice

Student-teachers are frequently concerned about seeking the practical or technical

skills fundamental to teaching practice (Bullough, 1997). They typically deem that

the practicum is the only way to really learn about teaching (Feiman-Nemser and

Remillard, 1996; Knowles and Cole, 1996). Furthermore, student-teachers typically

believe that university coursework is something to be tolerated in a way that is simi-

lar to their passive learning experiences at school; this conviction inhibits their abil-

ities to identify uncertainties about developing their teaching practice (Goodlad,

1990; Carter and Anders, 1996). This view was reflected in the response of one stu-

dent-teacher who compared in-school experience with university lectures:

Hands-on experience is priceless!!!… I realise that I still have numerous

things to learn and will be forever learning about teaching … however, I

feel that these things can only be learnt whilst on school experiences, not

by sitting in lecture theatres.

(#6-ii-SE3)

Teaching is practised in classroom and school contexts; it is, however, also an

intellectual activity. Teaching combines theoretical and practical learning that com-

prise, as described by Lieberman and Miller (1999, p. 60) "outside knowledge"

693

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

694

accomplished, for example, through professional reading and conferences and

"inside knowledge" acquired, for example, from individual teaching experiences and

collaborative activities. Tensions between theory and practice are frequently ampli-

fied by inadequate opportunities to explore relationships between the theories stud-

ied at university and the practical experience of school placements (Bullough, 1997;

Tom, 1997). In attempting to bring about "integration within the teacher" (Korthagen

and Kessels, 1999, p. 4) it is crucial to consider that establishing an approach to com-

bining theory and practice is more important than debating whether theory or prac-

tice should come first or last. Establishing more credible links between theory and

practice that might lead student-teachers to develop their understandings of the links

between "pedagogy and content knowledge and how these two forms of knowledge

interact in teaching" (Westerman, 1991, p. 293) is central to this integration.

Accordingly, while experience may alert student-teachers to the existence of

particular issues of learning and teaching, it is crucial that thinking about those

issues and decisions about teaching practice are underlined by a theoretical founda-

tion (Grossman, 1990). In this way there may be a reduced likelihood of the devel-

opment of a dichotomy described by Calderhead and Shorrock (1997, p. 195)

between "the need for teachers to understand teaching", possibly more emphasised

by universities, and "the need to be able to perform teaching" (emphases in original)

which is, perhaps, more likely to be accentuated by schools. Some student-teachers

reflected an emphasis on teaching performance, as revealed in the comments from

one Intern:

Support from the uni is not needed if things are going well, as the case

was [for me].

(#30-vii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

Other student-teachers expressed the view that school is the authentic place for learn-

ing to teach and that regular opportunities to practise teaching were vital to improve

the integration of theory and practice. As this student-teacher makes clear:

Over the last three years it has become obvious that nothing a university

does can possibly prepare anyone for working six hours a day with

children … . The emphasis should lie on learning theory at uni followed

by weekly opportunities to apply this new knowledge in the correct

context … in a school.

(#2-I-SE3, emphases in original)

Indeed, when asked to consider improvements to the practicum, many suggestions

focused on decreasing the amount of theory and increasing the practical experience,

as evidenced in the following two student-teachers' responses:

No problems with the prac experience. [I] would suggest that the

Bachelor of Education course requires a lot more practical experience.

We need more structure regarding ways in which we can teach.

(9#3-ix- SE4/Intern, paired placement)

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

The only thing I would change by the time you get to Year 4 is to remove

the essays and the theory and give us hands-on things that we could take

with us for our teaching.

(#18-ix- SE4/Intern, paired placement)

The emphasis by student-teachers on practicalities underlines the crucial need for

teacher educators to focus increasingly on moving the practicum focus "away from

skills acquisition towards a more explicit understanding of the process of learning to

teach" (Hastings and Squires, 2002, p. 81).

Tension 3: Learning to teach

Progression from the role of student to the role of teacher is at the core of student-

teachers' learning to teach (Tomlinson, 1995; Calderhead and Shorrock, 1997).

However, student-teachers appear to view this transition as more "occupational" than

"intellectual" (Goodlad, 1990, p. 214) in nature and, furthermore, as more reliant

upon their experiences in schools than in any evolution in role as a learner or an

enquirer at university. Marti and Huberman (1993, p. 197) described tensions

between roles and, more importantly, tensions between the status of different roles:

"young adult; big brother or sister; friend, parent; former pupil; teacher, to mention

only a few" that, in fact, are made still more complex in combination with roles per-

formed in private life.

MODELS OF LEARNING TO TEACH

Different models of learning to be a teacher have been described in the literature

(Britzman, 1986; Bullough, 1997; Korthagen and Kessels, 1999; Samaras, 2002).

These models encompass learning derived from: first, the student-teacher's own stu-

dent days; second, time as a university student; third, practicum experiences; and

finally, as a beginning teacher. Student-teachers' experiences during their own

schooling substantially influence their beliefs about teaching (Carter and Doyle,

1996). Therefore, in order to maximise opportunities to engage student-teachers in

altering their beliefs they must play a major role themselves in their own learning

(Bullough, 1997; Loughran, 2002).

Learning to teach requires a judicious combination of personal and professional

qualities (Liston & Zeichner, 1991; Preston, 2001) that requires a complex social

process between and among student-teachers and experienced teachers (Bullough,

1997). For practising teachers "teaching is a messy affair"; for student-teachers who

typically have less confidence and expertise, and certainly less experience "learning

to teach seems even messier" (Liston and Zeichner, 1991, p. 60).

THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

TO IMPROVE STUDENT TEACHER LEARNING

There is increasing recognition of the capacity of learning and communication tech-

nologies to increase participation in professional learning (Collis, 1995; Ehrmann,

695

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

696

1997; Selwyn, 2000). These technologies offer an array of supports to learning

opportunities, in part by facilitating increased opportunities for school-based and

university-based staff and other student teachers to interact and collaborate. Student-

teachers do need to be more resourceful during the practicum than at other times

during their pre-service education (Albon and Trinidad, 2002). However, the number

of opportunities to converse professionally and learn collaboratively does mesh with

the possibilities offered by learning and communicating technologies. The use of

these technologies, when the student-teacher is actually in a teaching situation,

recognises the situated and mutual activity that underpins student-teachers' learning

during the practicum (Mazoue, 1999; Mayer, 2002).

The Tasmanian student-teachers in this study were offered opportunities to com-

municate with each other and their lecturers through the use of chat rooms and the

discussion board. They were encouraged to become increasingly proactive in manag-

ing aspects of their own placements: first, through use of the calendar tool, on which

lecturers could post information and which student teachers could personally tailor to

their own needs; and second, by completing surveys in which they were invited to

reflect on their experiences in schools, their learning, and in which they could pro-

vide feedback.

The student-teachers commented about the importance of "keeping in touch"

(#9-vi-SE3), and stressed the value of the availability of communication that was

"easy to access and a quick way to get up-to-date info" (#8-vi-SE3). There was evi-

dence of support for synchronous and asynchronous professional conversations and

collaborative learning through being able to offer and receive peer support. For

example, this kind of collaboration is described in the following two responses:

I found the discussion boards were very helpful because they made me

verbalise the aspects I wanted to improve on.

(#16-iii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

The chats and discussion we had were great for self-esteem and confi-

dence because you could see that [others] were having the same experi-

ences and feelings that you were.

(#43-iii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

One of the discussion threads from WebCT illustrated a sharing of experiences and

feelings that appeared to be a powerful episode for the discussion participants.

Several student-teachers took the opportunity to share a problem, offer opinions and

support, respond to support from peers, and observe the outcomes of their collabora-

tive on-line activity. For example, one discussion thread is presented, in part, in the

following sequence of contributions:

Message #27 (first anonymous posting by one student-teacher about the subject:

Am I the only one???)

I have decided to post this message anonymously because it sounds like

I am the only one having issues with my class.

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

Yes, I am having trouble with behaviour management … .it is all too

intimidating when you have [other] sets of adult eyes on you and the

children … are in an uproar. I know this shouldn't worry me, but I feel as

if they are all assessing me as well, and it doesn't look good when you

don't have control over the class.

I don't want this to go on for another four and a half weeks ….

Message #29 (anonymous posting by a second student-teacher)

I am also out on my own in a class. My biggest struggle is behaviour man-

agement, the same as you explained … .My teacher had been very support-

ive … .She also told me that 7 weeks is not long enough to gain the

relationship with the children to the same level that she has … .So don't put

that pressure on yourself to think that the children should respond to you the

same way as they do to their teacher … .Hopefully it will get better soon.

Message #37 (lecturer's posting after 4 responses posted):

Hello Anon, I hope you have found some strength and helpful ideas in the

responses from your peers. They have covered so much ground! I hope

you have been able to talk about the issues with your colleague teacher

or school's coordinator … .If you feel you would like another avenue of

support … .email me … or another lecturer you know well. All the best

and keep in touch.

Message #38 (a third student-teacher who identified herself)

I am having a great prac but am also having trouble re behaviour man-

agement with my class. They are still testing me. They began the week by

[described incident]. It's good to hear from others who are going through

the same things!! Good luck to everyone!!

Message #39 (a fourth student-teacher who identified herself)

I … experienced a similar problem. The strategy used … [described

behaviour and strategy]. This may or may not help … but I did try.

Message #43 (second anonymous posting by the first student-teacher; 6 days later)

I am the original Anon. that was (and still is) experiencing behaviour

management troubles in my class. Thank you for all your support and

ideas … my class hasn't really settled down … but what can I expect? My

colleague teacher has had them for 18 months now (she had them last

year as well). I have to expect that they will try to put it over

me!!… .Apart from that I am enjoying prac., all the staff are very sup-

portive … .Thank you again for all your ideas.

Message #50 (anonymous posting by a fifth student-teacher)

I think [same grade as student-teacher t 1] is the most challenging of all

the grades I have worked with … . Hope things have improved.

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COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

698

The first student-teacher, in their final comment (message #43) posted on the Am I

the only one??? discussion thread, expressed a new optimism and an increasingly

realistic outlook.

The contribution of a different student-teacher who viewed optimistically the

experience of participating in on-line contact highlighted the importance of remem-

bering that teaching is an "emotional" activity and that over-reliance on the use of

high-technology risks removing student-teachers from the very thing teachers value

about teaching, and that attracts student-teachers to the profession.

Message #56 (a sixth student-teacher who identified herself)

It was so great to log in and see so many messages from all of you. It's

just like being back at uni! I think that's what I've missed most while on

prac – not having people around you that are in the same position.

Feedback from student-teachers pointed to several aspects of on-line communication

that require designers' attention: first, a preference for face-to-face communication

with on-line tools acting only as support; second, considerable variation in the capac-

ity of schools to facilitate student-teachers' access to the internet and in the case of a

few schools, their willingness to do so. Specifically, of 111 sets of responses

received, 22 responses identified a time-issue with the use of WebCT, 22 responses

highlighted issues related to access (predominantly problems of gaining computer

access in schools or technological problems), five responses indicated that student-

teachers needed improved information about the benefits of using on-line materials

and how to use these, and four responses related to disliking the technology or find-

ing it confusing. The three comments that follow illustrate some of the problems

identified by the student-teachers:

I felt that during prac I was too busy to be able to … check WebCT, as

planning [for School Experience] took priority.

(#20-vi-SE3)

I couldn't access WebCT very easily … the computers at school were

very slow to connect and kept bringing up errors, so I haven't used it very

much.

(#14-vi-SE4/Internship, single)

I don't really like communicating using this technology. It is a little con-

fusing.

(#2-vi-SE3)

The student-teachers made several suggestions related to specific on-line supports

for the practicum experience that could be accessed through hyperlinks placed within

WebCT. They proposed strategies to assist: preparations for the practicum; facilitat-

ing access to communication; and the provision of on-line resources for use in

their planning, preparation and teaching. Their suggestions are summarised in the list

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

that follows:

●Making available questionnaires for student-teachers to assess their own readiness

to undertake each placement;

●Making available information to provide school personnel—colleague teachers

and school co-ordinators of placements within individual schools—with a broad

on-line description of the course typically completed by student-teachers prior to

each one of their four in-school experiences;

●Promoting communication channels between schools and the university prior to

and during placements, and post-placement; and

●Provision of links to educational web sites, already available or constructed for the

specific purpose of being linked to the School Experience web-site, in which

student-teachers can access ideas and materials for example, planning, curriculum

issues, and classroom management.

'WORLDS' OF TEACHING

Typically there are considerable discrepancies between views of the real world of

teaching embraced by student-teachers and those held by experienced teachers in the

classroom (Campbell-Evans and Maloney, 1997). These divergent views help to frame

practicum participants' ideas of what the learner is learning. For example, participants

may think of the practicum as the adoption of, in the words of Knowles and Cole

(1996, p. 657), a technical act of learning "to teach" or a more profound approach of

learning "to become a teacher". Some student-teachers revealed their focus on a pre-

dominantly technical performance and emphasised the importance to them of receiv-

ing what Britzman (1986, p. 446) termed "automatic and generic methods for

immediate classroom application"; their concerns were embodied in their references

to such factors as a bag of tricks and tips, as exemplified in two comments:

If we had come to the end of our "bag of tricks" the colleague teacher

and the school SE supervisor would help with the situation and also

ensure that we had another skill to add to the bag of tricks for next time.

(#22-v- SE4/Intern, paired placement)

Allowing me to experience teaching on my own … providing helpful tips

with behaviour issues

(#17-v- SE4/Intern, paired placement)

While novice teachers may be able to identify specific issues or problems related to

students and their pedagogy they may "not know what to make of them instruction-

ally" (Bullough, 1997, p. 85) because of their lack of broad understanding and knowl-

edge within the dynamic context of the classroom. Experienced teachers, in contrast,

form considerably more all-inclusive views of classrooms than do novice teachers on

which they base their "mental representations, including their goals" (Westerman,

1991, p. 299). Accordingly, it would be reasonable to assume that student-teachers

699

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

700

would find themselves in a similar predicament to that of novices in contrast with

skilled teachers' reliance on fertile information pertaining to the curriculum, class-

room management and students that is "organized around interpretative concepts or

propositions … tied to the teaching environment" (Munby et al ., 2001, p. 889).

The typical structure of pre-service teacher education courses too frequently fails to

provide student-teachers with the foundation to shift their "intuitive and imitative"

student-teacher views of teaching that remain founded on the concept of , in Lortie's

terms (1975, p. 62), "individual personalities" rather than "pedagogical principles".

Student-teachers' active pursuit of "the tricks of the trade which will help … organize the

students and induce them to learn" (Tom, 1997, p.135), therefore, should not be unex-

pected. It is crucial that colleague teachers demonstrate commitment to continuing their

own learning and make explicit their thinking and performance to student-teachers

(Turner and Bash, 1999) in order to support a situation where student-teachers typically

seek opportunities for ongoing reflection and professional learning (Feiman-Nemser and

Remillard, 1996; Risko et al., 2002). The crucial role of continuing professional learning

highlighted in the literature (Tomlinson, 1995) was echoed in the following responses:

I … believe teachers are continually developing and self-assessing their work.

(#29-ii-SE3)

I believe that I have learnt so much, but I know that there is still so much

to learn, in terms of planning for units and assessing students'work.

(#43-ii-SE3)

Moreover, the principles behind teaching substantially remain the province of teach-

ers; the more experienced and expert the teacher, the more invisible the complexity

of teaching and the teacher's intent to the uninformed observer (Berliner, 1994).

Skilled teachers focus beyond themselves, their own performance and superficial

classroom features. Their priorities rest with students'learning, and social and insti-

tutional relationships, structures and configurations (Furlong, 2000). Teachers

require several years of experience, however, before they begin to associate their

teaching actions with what their students learn (Berliner, 2001).

Student-teachers' philosophies of teaching need to be challenged and extended with

the support of more experienced and trusted mentors so they may engage in discussion

and reflection that develop their thinking (Risko et al., 2002; Samaras, 2002). The lack

of shared values and the resultant incongruity between in-school experience and uni-

versity teacher education programs, however, typically result in little or no require-

ment for student-teachers to reflect, learn, or confront their original views (Bullough,

1997). Elements in the culture of the teacher education course and/or the practicum

may in fact impede meaningful and deeper levels of communication and reflection,

and sanction a parallel belief that superficial performance is acceptable.

AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR LEARNING TO BE A TEACHER

The fact that two models of SE4/Internship—individual placement and paired

placement—were available to the Tasmanian student teachers offered us the opportunity

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

to explore their perceptions of either working alone or with a partner. Approximately

half of the student-teachers who undertook SE4/Internship individual placements

made reference to how an individual placement enabled them to experience the real

world of teaching; this was in their opinion the best preparation for their future teach-

ing. Anecdotal feedback from many teachers also indicates their perception that indi-

vidual placements mirror the real world of teaching. This belief is transferred to

student-teachers who characteristically develop the belief that an individual place-

ment will best prepare them for teaching the year after they graduate because it

emulates the circumstances of a teacher (Carter and Anders, 1996).

The following two comments were examples of the student-teachers' responses to

their experiences of individual placements:

It's more like what will happen next year. I realised that I could actually do it!

(42-viii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

I got a sense of the real world of teaching and felt proud I didn't take the

easy option [of a paired placement].

(45-viii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

Anecdotal feedback from student-teachers suggested that paired placements often

were viewed as half the work of individual placements. This view implies missed

opportunities to teach student-teachers about the purpose and skills of collaborative

learning. Additionally the role of teachers in perpetuating this view demands consid-

eration. Reasons cited by student-teachers for the perceived advantage of individual

placements included: first, issues of the time it takes to collaborate; and second, not

having to negotiate, compromise and solve problems. Two student-teachers' com-

ments illustrate these views:

I would not have completed a paired placement as I would have found it

difficult to accept and implement a new teaching style.

(28-viii-SE4/Intern, individual placement)

A disadvantage of being paired was that we had differing opinions about

students' learning needs.

(57-viii-SE4/Intern, paired placement)

Additionally, some student-teachers reported that the individual model offered the

advantage of not having to discuss their work. Moreover, it was evident that some stu-

dent-teachers perceived pressures that led to, and resulted from, competition to

impress prospective employers. One student-teacher, for example, described a paired

placement in which collaboration and support yielded to retreat and competition.

Towards the end it became competitive … as trying out new ideas

became an individual experience not shared as each wanted to try their

own and didn't help the other.

(#61-viii-SE4/Intern, paired placement)

701

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

702

In contrast with the perception that the single placement mirrors the real world of

teaching, the argument for a "community of scholars" approach has been advanced

by Samaras (2002) who argued for the judicious pairing of student-teachers to

enhance their learning in ways parallel with what Lave and Wenger (1991, p. 34)

termed "legitimate peripheral participation" in order that each partner could derive

benefit from each other's strengths. Arranging pairs in this fashion resulted in some

of Samaras' student-teachers raising concerns about their partners'differences. Positive

outcomes reported by Samaras included the requirement that student-teachers listen to

each other and reconstruct their knowledge about teaching. The importance of reflec-

tion with others has been noted by a number of authors (Loughran, 2002; Risko et al .,

2002; Tomlinson, 1995). Bullough et al . (2003) highlighted aspects of individual

placements versus paired placements and their role in student-teachers' notions of

teaching.

If to learn to teach is to learn to manage by yourself large numbers of

children, then partnership teaching has an obvious disadvantage.

However, if student teaching's primary purpose is to learn how to

develop innovative curricula and expand one's knowledge of methods

and of children while learning to engage in collaboration, then partner-

ship teaching has an advantage.

(Bullough et al ., 2003, p. 71)

Some Tasmanian student-teachers mentioned benefits, for themselves and the stu-

dents they taught, of working and learning from each other.

Having someone to talk to who knows exactly what you are talking about …

(#9-viii-SE4/Intern, paired placement)

Learning from one another's teaching styles, having someone to bounce

ideas off [was important].

(#32-viii-SE4/Intern, paired placement)

Sharing the workload, having a sounding board … you can't be every-

thing to everyone and those students you didn't get along with so well

may get along with your partner.

(#61-viii-SE4/Intern, paired placement)

Placing student-teachers––individually or in pairs––with individual teachers rather

than a school community effectively limits student-teachers' learning opportunities.

Placements with individual teachers heighten the risk of student-teachers embracing

unsophisticated views of learning opportunities and the perpetuation of teaching prac-

tice through creating a situation characterised by deference to and reproduction of the

colleague teacher's behaviour. Placement with a school community enables student-

teachers to become "caught up in interaction among all communities within the

school" (McIntyre et al ., 1996, p. 173) and to become "insiders" (Furlong, 2000, p. 15)

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

who collaboratively plan, teach, reflect and engage in professional discourse. These

views of the positive benefits of a community of scholars have been highlighted by

Bullough (1997) and Samaras (2002). Furthermore, anecdotal feedback from

student-teachers who worked in paired placements indicated that they attached

importance to learning with peers in addition to learning with experienced teachers.

Anecdotal evidence from many Tasmanian schools points to their preference for

paired SE4/Internship placements, however, reasons cited by schools are not

reflected in the literature. There is some evidence that schools seek to release teach-

ers during the Internship phase for in-school projects or their own professional learn-

ing. Consequently, the removal of teachers from regular interaction with interns

constructs a perception that mentoring student teachers is not a professional learning

opportunity.

An added tension in learning to teach is the complex environment of the classroom

in which student-teachers experience simultaneously "a time of 'getting one's feet

wet' and a 'sink or swim' experience" (Britzman, 1986, p. 443). They must learn in

an unpredictable environment in which many instantaneous decisions are required

with no opportunity to be gradually immersed in the classroom. Similar tensions

have been identified and linked to the provision of in-service professional learning

for teachers (Eraut, 1994; Guskey, 2000; Putnam and Borko, 2000; Kelleher, 2003).

One student-teacher, however, in considering their 'sink or swim experience'

reported that being left alone was advantageous to their learning:

I didn't see a lot of my teachers, they hardly ever came into the room,

however at the same time this did give me a chance to develop my teach-

ing and I feel I became better at teaching because of it.

(#10-v-paired placement-SE4/Intern)

Teacher educators must aim to develop student-teachers' capacities to progress

through increasingly different intensities of reflection, starting with personal per-

formance at a practical, more superficial level and moving towards justifying teach-

ing practice and its bearing on students' learning, and eventually to reflecting on

ethical and political issues (Furlong, 2000). The closest any of the Tasmanian stu-

dent-teachers came to reflection was evident in the following two responses offered

by student-teacher #37:

Getting my teaching and learning philosophy into order … just what is it

that I am doing and why? … What is important in [students'] lives and

necessary for their learning right now?

(#37-iv-paired placement)

I don't know enough about the steps involved in the teaching of the con-

tent of particular topics. What are the progressions that students make

when they are learning about volume … And what … of my own teaching

and learning philosophy?

(#37-ix-paired placement)

703

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

704

Motives for undertaking what might be viewed as "safe" or non-risk-taking levels of

reflection become evident when well-documented non-risk taking teacher orientations

are considered (Bullough, 1997). Two orientations identified by Lortie (1975) are:

conservatism, typically resulting in teachers' avoidance of reflection that could result

in their changing their practice or the classroom environment in which they practise;

and individualism, in which professional collaboration is eschewed for fear of the

resultant judgment and criticism. Orientation to these modes has considerable impli-

cations for missed learning opportunities. Moreover, these modes sustain a tradition of

private reflection, typically for student-teachers in the form of journal entries, which

channels them to "a 'standing in place' without sufficient nudging and coaching that

can lead to adopting additional perspectives" (Risko et al ., 2002, p. 139).

Resources to facilitate provision of improved levels of assistance by university-

based teacher educators to facilitate student teacher reflection are crucial as student-

teachers typically experience uncertainty about their teaching abilities (Furlong,

2000). At this point, it is crucial to note that student-teachers typically report being

more influenced by teachers than by their lecturers at university (Goodlad, 1990);

however, some-teachers described several helpful strategies employed by their univer-

sity lecturers. The receipt of constructive criticism and suggestions was appreciated by

student-teachers. One student-teacher noted: "they spent time talking with us about

what we had been doing and offered constructive criticism/suggestions about what

they had seen in the classroom" (#29-vii-paired placement). Enabling conversations

with someone they knew from outside the school context was helpful, as reported by

another student-teacher: "It was good to see a familiar face and be able to discuss my

prac with an outsider of the school that I was working in" (#49-vii-individual place-

ment). These reports reflected the importance of having the support of university staff

with whom it was possible to debrief in a collegial atmosphere. Many student-teach-

ers reported the importance of opportunities for them to share reflections with skilled

teachers, peers and university staff in an atmosphere of mutual respect and trust.

Developing increased opportunities for university staff to influence student-teachers

must be a priority in reconsidering the practicum. In reality, however, resources to

enhance opportunities for university staff to collaborate with student-teachers are

insufficient. Many university staff have argued the exigency for obtaining much-

needed resources to appropriately fund quality teacher education, although this call

is unlikely to be successful in the current political and economic contexts.

Provision of opportunities for student-teachers to be exposed to experienced teach-

ers' articulation of their teaching is an area of student-teacher learning that requires

ongoing attention in the quest to improve the quality of collaboration during in-school

experience. Participants—student-teachers, teachers, and university staff—must

engage in discourse about the purposes of the practicum, what it means to perform

current roles and what new roles might be required.

Tension 4: Teachers'conflicting roles

Tasmanian teachers have responsibility for formative and summative assessment of

student-teachers' work during practica. Like many other providers, the University of

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

Tasmania's School Experience program attempts simultaneously to offer a developmen-

tal model and an evaluative model (Faculty of Education, 2003). Lack of congruence

between the roles of mentoring and assessing develops from the characteristically

diametrically opposed nature of working collegially and of the supervisor-supervisee

relationship (Grimmett and Crehan, 1992). Many Tasmanian colleague teachers have

expressed some difficulties in providing frank, specific and constructive feedback to

student-teachers brought about by their typically supportive characteristics; they are

not accustomed to engaging in what Calderhead and Shorrock (1997, p. 209)

describe as "constructively critical dialogue". It is vital that teachers expand their

strategies for providing feedback.

The situations of conflict experienced by teachers as a result of having to perform

formative and summative assessment is a strong theme that has emerged from anec-

dotal comments from many teachers. Some student-teachers' comments corrobo-

rated teachers' reported difficulties. Apprehension about their colleague teachers'

assessment role influenced some student-teachers to not initiate some professional

discourse. One student-teacher described the experience of not knowing how their

request for assistance would be perceived by the colleague teacher:

The class I had was very challenging … [I] would have found it helpful

to have received some support but none was given to me … .Maybe I

should have asked for assistance but I was afraid of looking like I wasn't

achieving.

(#56-ix-individual placement, SE4/Intern)

The potential conflict between how student-teachers would like to fulfil their class-

room role and their belief they need to do whatever it takes to pass the placement is

associated with the kinds of strategies they employ during in-school experience. For

example, one student-teacher noted the importance of performing for the principal:

The colleague teacher gave us helpful pointers and ideas of how to do

things differently in the classroom to suit what the principal looked for.

(#33-v-paired placement, SE4/Intern)

Student-teachers are unwilling to adopt an approach that might be viewed by a colleague

teacher as questioning their views. A typical comment illustrated this reluctance:

It is still hard to communicate to your teacher ideas and thoughts with-

out sounding pushy. Therefore School Experience 3 did not give as much

independence as I would have liked or anticipated.

(#17-i-SE3)

In contexts in which mutual respect and trust between student-teacher and colleague

teacher are not present there is increasing potential for collision between the dual

roles of the teacher, as mentor and assessor, and the roles of student-teacher, demon-

strating competencies confidently and with initiative and demonstrating their capac-

ity to learn from their colleague teacher.

705

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

706

Several student-teachers expressed their preference for open and full feedback.

However, they did not welcome feedback in isolation from the use of an overall

supportive approach by teachers. They expressed their appreciation for a range of

opportunities characterised by mutual respect and trust that echo findings by several

researchers (for example, Bleach, 1999; Calderhead and Shorrock, 1997). These

included opportunities first, to put ideas into practice; second, to initiate and influ-

ence the time and focus for reflection; third, to share their colleague teachers'

resources; fourth, to be consulted about their opinion on professional matters; fifth,

to be given time to organize their thoughts in order to contribute ably to whatever

discussion would be taking place; and finally, to be provided with information,

advice and guidance on a range of matters relating to teaching and the profession.

Tension 5: Relationships

Bleach (1999, pp. 28, 34) described a process entailing "shared power, the mutual

exchange of information, equally active roles, collaborative learning and reciprocal

reflection" rather than " 'expert' practitioner … guiding the 'inexpert' novice" to

gain "access to [the] new society" of the classroom and the school. Many student-

teachers expressed the central role of relationships in the success or otherwise of

their in-school experiences. Some student-teachers' reports pointed to a mutually

reinforcing process in which they were able to build success upon success and

generate a solid foundation for their professional learning and development. They

testified to links between positive relationships, support, trust, having their profes-

sional opinions appreciated, and their developing confidence. Several student-teachers

emphasized their appreciation in the following terms:

Listening to me and how I thought my lessons and the day went … also

writing feedback on my lesson … then expanding on this in person.

(#17-v-SE3)

Allowing me to have input, asking for my opinions.

(#34-v-SE3)

Allowing me to try out lessons on the class, even if they [the teacher] felt

they might not work.

(#4-v-SE3)

The teacher stepped in when required and then handed back the reins.

(#18-v-SE3)

The importance of student-teachers working in an atmosphere in which they could

achieve an appropriate balance between opportunities to demonstrate initiative and not

being accused of excessive self-confidence was noted in several responses. Student-

teachers' reports focused on their perceptions of the ways in which supportive col-

league teacher behaviours assisted them to participate confidently in professional

CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

discourse and professional learning. Excerpts from their responses included reference

to: confidence, "giving me space to gain confidence … not interrupting all the

time … allowing me to initiate reflection after a session so that I was composed and

ready (#39-v-SE3); feedback, "we were able to openly discuss things I was good at

and things I needed to improve … she was willing to let me try different things out

when teaching the children" (#31-v-SE3); a range of communications, "her positive

feedback and encouragement, her willingness to let me take lessons, experiment and

learn from my own teaching … communicating to me about everything from how to

set up the classroom to how to deal with misbehaviour or prepare for parent-teacher

interviews … all were helpful" (#41-v-SE3); and opportunities to demonstrate initia-

tive, "she … allowed me to experiment with my own ideas but did not throw me in

the deep end (#54-v-SE4/Intern, individual placement).

In contrast, colleague teachers' inflexibility or lack of interest in providing oppor-

tunities for student-teachers to test their own ideas and to learn from the experience

may inhibit their professional development. Student-teachers reported being

hindered by having to work in a class "where the routine and behaviour expectations

are already established" (#42-ii-SE3) and by "differences in opinion with my super-

vising teacher" (#13-i-SE3). Neither of these scenarios might come as any surprise to

an informed observer: establishing routines and expectations is necessary with each

group of teachers and students as is acknowledgement that differences in opinion are

part of the human condition. The style of communication rather than the difference

itself, however, may have played a greater role in student-teachers' reported percep-

tions of these differences.

CONCLUSION

Important and valuable advances have been made in the internet's potential to

support student-teachers' learning. Nevertheless, continuing development of this

technology offers the potential to recognise the distributed nature of learning and

requires appropriate resource levels: first, to ensure student-teachers are competent

and at ease with its use; second, to explicate the specific features of and use of the

communication tools; third, to appropriately staff faculties of education to enhance

opportunities for student-teachers to prepare for and learn during in-school experi-

ences, and to make connections with their university-based learning; and finally, to

support colleague teachers in their roles of mentors and assessors.

The study's findings provide support for specific improvements to the practicum

based on the innovative use of technology. Collaborative exploration and transforma-

tion of the purpose of the practicum and roles of the practicum partners is essential.

Inherent in a review of the practicum is the question of addressing the theory-practice

divide that characterises so much of the feedback that student-teachers provide.

Exploration by all participants and stakeholders of current and future practicum

models might enhance recognition of in-school learning experiences and ultimately

improve education provision in the future. Student-teachers must be engaged actively

in reviewing and creating their own learning. An integral aspect of this learning

707

COMPLEXITIES OF LEARNING TO TEACH

708

requires the development of skills of reflection and use of these individually and as a

member of a community of scholars. Indeed, it is crucial that consideration of strategies

that might enhance the opportunities to be gained from the distributed learning is an

integral part of a professional preparation program in universities and schools.

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CHRISTINE GARDNER AND JOHN WILLIAMSON

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to report and reflect on student teachers' self-perceptions

of Information and Communications Technology in Education (ICTE). The context

in which this examination takes place is within a continuing debate on the relative

merits of teaching computing skills and the integration of ICT into teaching practice.

Much is written about how technology is changing our lives, there is considerable

curiosity about its future, and there is great expectation that it will transform the way

we learn. However, just how this is to happen is still a mystery to many educators. Ever

since the pioneering efforts of Atkinson and Suppes (Atkinson, 1968; Suppes and

Morningstar 1968) a massive amount has been written about how technology will

transform teaching and learning. A great deal of the literature focuses on the dichotomy

between computer education and computers in education, although the word computer

is now often replaced with the more inclusive term – information and communication

technologies (ICT). The explanation of the now generally accepted dichotomy is that

learning about computers is the substance of computer education and information tech-

nology courses where the focus in on computer literacy and awareness, and computers

in education, or learning with computers, is about the use of the technology to build

powerful learning environments where computers and other technologies are used as

intelligent tutors, supportive mindtools (Jonassen, 1996, 2000) and challenging tutees

(Taylor, 1980) across the curriculum, to engage, enhance and enable learners. This lat-

ter perspective focuses attention on the intersection between pedagogy and technology,

and the resulting effect on psychology, epistemology and teaching praxis.

It is important to note that within the computers in education perspective differing

views on learning with technology exist. Many of these views focus on developing,

emerging and yet to be invented technologies and sometimes the focus is on the fan-

ciful. The Sci-Fi perspective, for example, is often reinforced by popular culture

where a simplistic view of human learning is often depicted. In science fiction cin-

ema, for example, humans can be programmed like a computer. There are a range of

perspectives or discourses about computers in education. The exploration of these

discourses helps to explain why ICTE is adopted in schools.

DISCOURSES OF ICTE ADOPTION

We identify three interwoven discourses of ICTE adoption, which collectively operate

to reduce the effectiveness of ICTE in schools. These may be referred to as the techno-

romantic, technological determinist, and image-driven perspectives respectively.

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GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

48. PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS SELF-PERCEPTIONS

OF ICTE: AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 711–724.

712

The first of these discourses, the techno-romantic, provides a perspective whereby

the teaching and learning environment becomes more engaging when yet to be

invented or improved versions of current technologies are introduced. By the sheer

presence of technology in the classroom, education will be renovated, learning will

become easier, teaching will be more dynamic, and curriculum more engaging. In

this idealistic perspective all that seems to be required is to get the wires, boxes and

screens in place and educational reform will be a reality. The process is reminiscent

of cargo cults during the early twentieth century, in that the arrival of the cargo was

expected to lead to happiness for villagers with little need for them to work very hard

for their own benefit. A subset of this discourse includes that of network technolo-

gies, where, as Spender and Stewart (2002) suggest, network technologies will shift

teaching and learning online and the notion of anywhere and at anytime learning will

become a reality. Anywhere/anytime learning will be characterized by student-centered,

project-based learning with the role of the teacher and the learner redefined. The

future will belong to the eteacher and the elearner. The eteacher will no longer be the

talking head at the front of the class, s/he will be as adept with technology as s/he is

with books and s/he will use new technologies to empower and engage learners. In

the digital networked classroom, technology will be infused with the learning

process to create knowledge products, the one size fits all curricula will be banished,

and digital repositories and learning objects will be the new tools of the teaching

profession (Romeo, 2003).

The second discourse, that of the technological determinist, is based on the propo-

sition that new technologies are inevitable and inexorable. In school education, this

assumption is accompanied by an implicit belief by administrators that developments

such as broadband communication, wireless connectivity or learning objects must be

adopted in schools, as they are increasingly becoming accepted in the wider community.

However, as with other discourses of ICTE adoption, this approach gives inadequate

consideration to changed teaching practices associated with new technologies, or the

skills that staff will require to implement them.

The final discourse, the image-driven, is even further divorced from the reality of

teaching and learning. In this understanding of ICTE, schools are promoted through

glossy brochures and high-technology web sites, featuring happy students immersed

in computer-rich environments. There can be a perceived market advantage in being

seen as a school that supports ICTE, and in some areas, competition for students can

be fierce. The possession of computer facilities by a school guarantees neither that

students will have equitable access over a range of year levels or subjects, nor does it

mean that teachers will have learned the necessary skills to use them to improve

student learning.

THE POTENTIAL FOR ICTE IN SCHOOL EDUCATION

Brown et al . (1999) conclude that the potential of technology in education lies in

bringing exciting, real-world problems into the classroom, in providing scaffolds and

tools to enhance learning, in giving students and teachers more opportunities for

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

feedback, reflection, and revision, in building local and global communities, and in

expanding opportunities for teacher learning. Dynamic multimedia, streamed audio

and video, simulations, rich databases, and interactive web sites now make it possi-

ble to bring powerful tools, resources, and data to the classroom. Connections to

museums, art galleries, scientific institutions, government agencies, statistical data-

bases, and other organizations can help to create an active environment where learn-

ers can solve and pose problems using the artifacts that are available to real scientists,

historians and mathematicians. These powerful interactive technologies present

learning opportunities that have not been previously available and now make it pos-

sible to create learning environments in which students can learn by doing, receive

feedback, and continually refine their understanding and build new knowledge

(Brown et al ., 1999).

Many technologies, including calculators, probes, handhelds, databases, spread-

sheets, word processors, multimedia and web authoring, concept mapping, and

programming software can serve as scaffolds and tools to assist student understand-

ing and learning. Papert's use of LOGO (1980, 1993) and Jonassen's (1996, 2000)

ideas about computers as Mindtools, or the use of Inspiration (Helfgott and

Westhaver, 2003) for concept mapping would be examples of using software appli-

cations to scaffold student learning. Many software applications also offer enhanced

opportunities for feedback, reflection, and revision, assisting with the development

of formative assessment procedures and with the provision of opportunities for learn-

ers to develop their metacognitive skills. New assessment software, the clever use of

word processors, spreadsheets and databases, and network technologies such as

email and threaded discussion groups makes available to teachers and learners tools

to enhance and expedite feedback. Email, threaded discussion groups, and online

journals can provide environments for reflection and authoring tools such as word

processors, multimedia slide shows and web page creation software provide oppor-

tunities for learners to revise and reedit their work and build a richer understanding.

Network technologies can also be used to build local and global learning commu-

nities. Theory informs teachers that they need to create learning environments where

the learner's preexisting knowledge is recognized and developed, opportunities for

discussion and the shared construction of knowledge are provided, and the social and

cultural background of the learner is considered. The communication technologies

that are now available via the Internet including chat, email, threaded discussion

groups and the many emerging database driven web applications that allow learners

to respond to situations and share the responses (Edwards and Romeo, 2003), pres-

ent unique opportunities to build learning communities. Teachers are also learners

and the technology provides them with opportunities to be part of their own local and

global learning communities, to use web technologies and various applications to

scaffold their learning, as well as opportunities to revise, reflect and receive feedback

(Brown, et al ., 1999).

In Australia there is a long tradition of reports advocating the use of ICTs in

education as described by Brown, et al . (1999). Early reports included the National

Advisory Committee on Computers in Schools (NACCS, 1983), and the

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF ICTE

714

Commonwealth Schools Commission (1985). More recently, as Finger and Trinidad

(2002) point out, there have been a range of initiatives by Federal and State governments

in Australia to develop systemic initiatives for effectively integrating computers into

schools. Table 48.1 describes some of these initiatives.

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

TABLE 48.1 Online Initiatives in Australia, Commonwealth Department of Education,

Science and Training (DEST) Initiatives and Projects

Initiatives and projects Summary

Progress Report: The Commonwealth Government promotes and supports

Learning in an online national collaboration across school systems to achieve the

world goals set down in Learning in an Online World (EdNA

Schools Advisory Group, 2000)

The Le@rning A component of Backing Australia's Ability: An Action

Federation – Schools Plan for the Future, the Le@rning Federation aims to

Online curriculum generate online curriculum content for system delivery to

initiative schools

Innovation and best The report School Innovation: Pathway to the Knowledge

practice project Society is available at

http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2001/index.htm

Models of teacher The project report Making Better Connections: Models of

professional development teacher professional development for the integration of ICT

for the integration of ICT into classroom practice is available at

into classroom practice http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2002/professio

nal.htm

ICT Competency The project now complete and the report Raising the

standards for teachers Standards: a proposal for the development of an ICT

competency framework for teachers is available at

http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2002/raisingsta

ndards.htm

Innovative bandwidth High speed online communications is a very high priority for

arrangements for the the education and training sector. The project report is

Australian education and available at

training sector http://www.dest.gov.au/schools/publications/2001/bandwidt

h/index.htm

International comparison This project describes and analyses what governments in

of ICT policies Australia and overseas, private education and training

providers in Australia are doing in terms of ICTs and

supporting transition to the information economy

National ICT research This will provide a searchable, online database available

database through EdNA Online

EdNA online EdNA Online website is available at

http://www.edna.edu.au, is managed by education.au.limited

which is a non-profit company owned by the State, Territory

and Commonwealth Ministers for Education and Training.

This website provides a portal for an extensive range of

quality services and resources to facilitate a network of

Australian educators

(Source: Finger and Trinidad. (2002). Summarised from MCEETYA Information and Communication

Technologies in Schools Taskforce, 2002)

One of the problems with many of the reports is that the complex and protracted

nature of human learning is glossed over, and unrealistic expectations are generated.

For many teachers, the promised synergy between technology and learning is proving

as elusive as ever even with the astonishing array of new technologies that are now

available. There is confusion about what the technology has to offer, why it matters

and widespread reluctance to move beyond tokenistic use of computers in the

classroom.

One response to these difficulties and tensions has been to focus on the ICT skills

and understandings that teachers need to function effectively in technology-rich

classrooms. Local examples of policy initiatives in this area include ICTs for

Learning (Education Queensland, 2004), Embedding Educational Technologies into

Professional Practice (Dept of Ed, Tasmania 2004), and eLearning Capabilities

Matrix (DE&T Vic, 2004). International initiatives include The Matrix by

BECTA/NCSL (2004), STaR Chart by CEO Forum (2004), National Educational

Technology Standards (NETS) Project by ISTE (2004), and International Computer

Drivers Licence (ACS, 2004).

Attention and pressure has also focused on teacher education. Pressure from

groups such as education unions, the now defunct Standards Council of the Teaching

Profession (Victoria), the Australian Council for Computers in Education (ACCE)

and the Australian Computer Society (ACS) has prompted Faculties of Education in

Australian universities to rethink the way in which teacher education courses prepare

students to use ICTE in their classes.

The latter part of this chapter describes a study of teacher education students. The

degree course in which these participating students were enrolled uses the Learning

Technologies Capabilities Statement (DEET, 1999) to help university staff embed

ICTs in the teacher education program, and as a schema for preparing students to use

ICTs during their professional lives. This statement, prepared by the Department of

Education and Training, Victoria (DE&T), is a summary list of ICT related skills,

knowledge and attitudes that teachers should develop over time (see Table 48.2).

It is not suggested that pre-service teachers should be able to master all of these

capabilities by their first year or indeed by end of their course. As a tactic for com-

mencing the journey for student teachers, various ICTE specific core units, modules

and electives are offered and an attempt is made to embed ICTE across the curricu-

lum. As well, a rich online environment is provided. This includes an extensive online

cyber library with an online catalogue and connection to an array of databases, access

to the World Wide Web and the University's intranet, unit websites, a student portal,

email, threaded discussion groups, chat, lectures online (RealAudio), and interactive

online tutorials.

This environment is particularly important for student teachers for a number of rea-

sons. First, efficient use of the Internet and the Intranet for authentic purposes increases

students' skill level and their familiarity with cyberspace. Second, by modelling the use

of the web as a teaching and learning tool, lecturing staff not only show students how

Internet technologies might be used in the classroom but also motivate students to think

about the possibilities. Third, exposure to the use of Internet technologies for teaching

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF ICTE

716

and learning purposes helps students to develop a critical voice. As future professional

educators, it is important that education students experience aspects of learning with

technology to help them construct an informed view about the potential of the technol-

ogy for teaching and learning purposes.

STUDENTS' VIEWS OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES IN EDUCATION

The decision to survey first year students about their views of ICTE resulted from a

need to monitor the implementation of the framework on which the course was

based. There was an imperative to determine students' attitude towards ICTE, and to

highlight any differences between student understandings of ICTE, and that of the

academics responsible for the design and teaching of the course.

Evaluating the effectiveness of the framework is important because for the majority

of teachers currently working in Australia, and perhaps the world, ICTE has not been

a part of their learning experience. Given this lack of experience, it is not surprising

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

TABLE 48.2 Department of Education and Training, Victoria – Learning Technologies Capabilities

Statement

The Learning Technologies Capabilities Statement

The statement identifies teacher capabilities in five areas:

1. Approaches to teaching and learning

The attitudes and approaches to teaching that will support the effective integration

of Learning Technologies in the classroom.

2. Classroom management and practice

Skills and understandings required to effectively manage a classroom where

Learning Technologies are an integral component.

3. Curriculum planning and development

Capabilities that ensure Learning Technologies are incorporated in the planning and

development of curriculum.

4. Monitoring and reporting student progress

Capabilities that link the use of Learning Technologies to the monitoring and

reporting of student progress.

5. Learning Technologies skills for classroom and administrative purposes

A range of skills is required by teachers to use technology for classroom and

administrative purposes. These skills are further elaborated in the Skill

Development Matrix. The matrix identifies seven major areas for skill development.

Professional development goals and strategies at three stages of development are

identified in each area.

●using and managing technology

●using basic computer applications

●using desktop publishing and presentation software

●using multimedia

●using communication technologies

●using Learning Technologies in the key learning areas

●use school level computer applications for administrative purposes

that the integration of ICTE in education is proving difficult to implement. There are

some indications from the U.S.A. and Australia that the impact of preservice teacher

education courses in this area has been minimal. Cuban (2000) has argued that

despite two decades of personal computers in the U.S.A., and the wiring of schools,

less than two out of every ten teachers use computers in their classrooms several

times a week, 3–4 teachers use computers once a month, and 4–5 never use them.

This report is particularly disappointing as the provision of internet access to schools

in the U.S.A. has shown a dramatic increase in recent years. The NCES report (2003)

indicates that 99% of a sample of public schools in the U.S.A. had access to the

Internet in 2001, as did 87% of instructional rooms. Furthermore, 85% of those

schools with an Internet connection (all but 1%) used a broadband connection.

A steady stream of pre-service teachers must have completed their training in recent

years, and this observation suggests that this training has not led to high rates of

internet use in schools.

Given this finding, it is not surprising that in the U.S.A, the National Council for

Accreditation of Teacher Education has observed of pre-service teacher training that

"most schools of education have not yet fully integrated technology into their

programs for preparing teachers" (NCATE, 1997, p. 3). Similarly, Rossenthal (1999)

has observed that, in the U.S.A., teacher training in ICTE has been affected by short-

ages of hardware and software, a lack of training by faculties, and a poor apprecia-

tion of how much classrooms have changed. The situation does not appear to be very

different in Australia, as Stein et al . (1998) have shown that in the mid to late 1990s

there were few indications of substantive technology content in preservice teacher

education courses in Australia. Although there have been improvements in recent

years, and students' ICTE engagement within education faculties has increased,

some teacher education graduates might still find that their main understandings of

the impact of technologies such as the internet would be derived from the experience

of their daily lives.

An additional concern is that much of the research on pre-service teachers' views of

technology (eg Handler, 1993; Bedell, 1994), date from a period when computer use,

and in particular, the internet, was less common in schools. Technological change has

rendered this earlier research largely redundant. Whether connectivity occurs at home

or at school, it is likely that the Internet will be a key factor in the shaping of cultural

expectations and educational systems. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS,

2001) reported a 57% increase in households that were connected to the Internet in

Australia during the period May 1998 to May 1999. A survey of 6213 students in

Australian schools (DETYA, 1999) also found that 85% used a computer outside

school, and 79% had a computer at home. This survey was prompted by the knowl-

edge that there was insufficient evidence that education courses effectively prepare

teachers to use ICTE, and that much of the available data is of doubtful relevance for

future schooling. In particular, we wanted to gain insights into the preservice teachers'

visions of teaching and learning. In our view, ICTE can be a transformative agent in

school education if the appropriate conditions can be met. This includes a deep knowl-

edge of school contexts, teaching practices, and technologies.

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF ICTE

718

In this respect, our view is consistent with the imperative for graduating pre-service

teachers outlined by the Australian Council of Deans of Education (1998), which has

noted that graduates:

… should have a thorough knowledge of how the new learning, informa-

tion and curriculum technologies can be used in their particular cur-

riculum levels and areas, including as a means of enhancing interactions

between people and as a means of engaging and interrogating sources of

information, argument and ideas.

(Australian Council of Deans of Education, 1998, p. 16).

In the survey described below, we examined the self-perceptions of first year teacher

education students to see what they would reveal about students' understandings of

ICTE. We were also interested in finding out what that thinking revealed about the

structures we had implemented.

Participants

The individuals who participated in the survey were students enrolled in the first year

of undergraduate primary and early childhood teacher education degrees. Forty-two

respondents completed the questionnaire associated with this study and they had all

completed a unit entitled Computer Essentials during their first year of the course.

This unit is designed to introduce students to the university's online environment and

to develop personal computer literacy. The unit covers computer awareness, the

development of a conceptual model of a computer system, the interrelationships

between hardware and software, file management, storage and maintenance, soft-

ware operating systems, word-processing, databases and spreadsheets. There is also

a comprehensive introduction to the Internet and the online resources of the univer-

sity's library. The unit is essential in helping students to develop their knowledge and

skills in ICT and helps to establish a positive attitude toward technology. At this stage

the emphasis is on developing understandings to assist students to function effec-

tively as university students and as preservice teachers. Subsequent units and mod-

ules focus more on the pedagogy of using technology in the classroom.

The research was designed to collect their perceptions of ICTE now and in the

future, predictions of teachers' classroom computer use, and their opinions about

their own preparation for teaching in computer-related contexts. The respondents in

this study were predominantly young females. Eighty-three per cent were aged

19 years or younger and only four of the forty-two were male.

Instrument

The survey used a five-point Likert scale that ranged from Strongly Agree to

Strongly Disagree, (see Figure 48.1). Respondents were asked five questions about

how they believed students would use computers at school in 5 years time, five ques-

tions concerning teachers' future use of computers, and four questions about their

own preparation for teaching using computers. The items asked for a subjective

appraisal of these issues.

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

In addition, open-ended or qualitative responses were sought for questions concerning

computer use in primary classrooms, understandings of "cyberspace", and their mental

processes when they use computers (see Figure 48.2).

Procedure

Questionnaires were distributed to students at the end of a lecture, with an additional

distribution in the following week for students who had not previously been able to

participate. Forty-seven pre-service primary education students responded. After

collection, the results for the Likert-scale questions were analysed to discover whether

the group agreed or disagreed with the propositions in the survey. A five-point scale

was used, ranging from 1 (Definitely Agree) to 5 (Definitely Disagree). Responses of

Definitely Agree (1) and Tend to Agree (2) are combined to report agreement, while

responses of Definitely Agree (5) and Tend to Disagree (4) are combined to report

disagreement. The qualitative responses were categorized according to trends that

emerged from the data.

Results

The use of computers by school children in 5 years'time

A majority of respondents (85%) agreed that students would regularly obtain

information from the World Wide Web during their normal classes, and that school

students would be involved in regular co-operative work with other students, using

the internet (79%). Opinion was divided as to whether there would be regular use of

videoconferencing over the Internet during normal classes, with 43% of the sample

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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF ICTE

Definitely Tend to Neither agree Tend to Definitely agree

Question number agree agree nor disagree disagree

1.1 Many students

will attend "virtual

school". They will use

a computer from their

home for a large part

of their studies rather

than attend school on

a regular basis.

Figure 48.1. Sample Likert-scale question

Your comment about the ways in which computers will be used in primary school

classrooms:

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

Figure 48.2. Sample open-ended question

720

agreeing that this was likely. Sixty per cent of students thought it unlikely that virtual

schools would enable students to use computers from home rather than attend school,

and 57% also thought that harm was unlikely to result from immersion in on-line

environments.

Common themes that emerged from the qualitative data were beliefs that computers

would be used extensively in classrooms, and that computers were valuable for

education and future employment. One student commented that:

I believe computers will be used more widely in the classrooms across all

subjects, as there are so many programs that can help and benefit

students in their learning. I also believe that computers are a basic

requirement for most jobs.

However, other students distinguished between expected and preferred futures. There

were concerns about a lack of basic skills if too much attention were devoted to

computers:

Students should gain a sound knowledge of computers in class; however

this should not compromise their reading and writing skills/practice.

Predictions of teacher use of computers in the classroom

Ninety-five per cent of respondents believed that teachers would make efforts to

ensure that students use computers ethically, 74% supported statements that suggested

that teachers would make extensive use of computers in reporting to parents, and 81%

agreed that teachers would use computers across all subject areas in the curriculum.

However, there were mixed opinions as to whether teachers would change the basic

way that they taught in classrooms, with only 45% supporting this proposition.

Several students thought that there would be gradual rather than dramatic changes.

In the qualitative comments, a student observed that:

Computers will be gradually assimilated into the current curriculum

style, so more work will be done using them, but that does not mean that

the current manual approach will become redundant.

Preparation for teaching using computers

All the students (100%) believed that they had adequate knowledge of word process-

ing packages, and most (93%) also believed that they could find information on the

Internet. 88% believed that they had adequate knowledge of computer skills neces-

sary for the classroom, while 71% believed that they had enough curriculum knowl-

edge to use computers in this way. However, most students (61%) did not believe that

they were capable of creating their own interactive web page.

DISCUSSION

The student teachers' perceptions of how computers might be used in schools in

5 years time are broadly consistent with much of the literature. Open-ended responses

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

consistently suggested that the use of computers would continue to increase. One

student wrote:

I think the children and teachers in primary schools will use computers

even more often in classrooms than they do already.

Others understood the need for computers to be used across the curriculum, rather

than just a subject in its own right:

Technology is a worldwide factor today and I believe computers should

play a huge role in children's learning. The use of computers in every

subject e.g. Science Maths and English is very important

The view that teachers need competence in the pedagogy of computers as well as

their technical operation was also supported.

However it needs to be remembered that these students were in the first year of

their course and had only completed one unit that focuses mainly on developing their

personal computer literacy and awareness. Much of their response to the survey was

based on their own experiences as learners in a secondary school and, in most cases,

one year of higher education. As a consequence their responses, as would be

expected, tend to be superficial and clichéd. They understand that the use of ICTs in

schools will increase, that it will play a role in children's learning and that it is impor-

tant that ICT skills are mastered but how this might happen and why, and the peda-

gogy that underpins it, is not necessarily well understood. It could also be surmised

that students would need to further investigate the social, political and ethical impli-

cations of the ICTE phenomenon and how ICTs might impact on the organization of

schooling.

Responses to the question of student teachers' preparation for teaching were also

valuable. By the end of the students' first year, the course designers would normally

expect that students would be able to use applications such as word processing,

spreadsheet, database, and the World Wide Web, and this was largely confirmed.

There were some reservations about the use of advanced computer skills, and the

pedagogy of computer use with students. While it could be argued that the remainder

of the course provides opportunities for the students to practice these skills, there

may also be an opportunity to make the first year component of the course more

challenging. As computer skills learned at home and at school continue to grow, it

can be expected that entry-level skills in computing will also continue to increase.

CONCLUSION

The survey has certainly provided teaching staff with insights into the students'

thinking about technology and teaching. First, at the end of the first year of the course

students have mostly developed good computer skills especially in word processing

and the use of the Internet, are aware of some of the technology issues impacting on

education, and have started to develop a positive, albeit critical, attitude towards the

use of technology in classrooms. Second, the need for further investigation of issues

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722

and the further development of pedagogic understanding and skill in the next 3 years

of the course is apparent.

The implication of the first point for teacher educators is that the knowledge, skills

and understandings that the students have developed in regard to ICTs need to be

nurtured, developed and expanded. The challenge is how to make this happen in a

higher education environment where resources are shrinking and in a teacher educa-

tion environment where the ICTE phenomenon is not well understood and the inex-

tricable link between the technology and learning that now exists is even less well

understood.

The implication of the second point is similar to the first in that the resources,

knowledge and understanding needed to assist students to investigate further, to

develop pedagogies, and to nurture a critical voice, are limited. It also highlights the

preconceived views and attitudes regarding the use of ICT in the classroom that

students bring to the course. As in other subject areas these preconceived ideas can

sometimes be difficult to change.

The survey has certainly provided teaching staff with insights into how many of

the students are thinking about technology and teaching. These insights have been

used, where possible, to shape the program in subsequent years. Soon, these students

will be into the fourth year of their course and it will be interesting to survey them

again to see if their knowledge, skill and understanding has changed and what have

been the major influences in initiating, or not initiating, that change. The analysis of

data from this survey compared to the analysis of the data when the students com-

plete the course will provide useful indications that the ICTE framework developed

is appropriate, or not, for the population it was designed for.

This chapter has examined pre-service teachers' self-perceptions of Information

and Communications Technology (ICTE). The survey highlighted in the preceding

discussion has provided empirical evidence and context for our discussion on teach-

ers' skills and school practices in this area. The strong support shown for both com-

puter skills and the place of ICTE in future school education has been tempered by

caution about the ways in which schools will be able to change in the future. In this

respect, we believe that the course that we have surveyed contributes in a positive

way to the pre-service education of teachers in ICTE. In our opinion, it is appropri-

ate to consider ICTE as learning environments with a transformative potential in

school education. Consequently, beginning teachers should have had the opportunity

to learn about the associated tools and pedagogy before they enter the profession.

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Society. Accessed on 01/10/04 at http://www.acs.org.au/icdl/.

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Australian Council of Deans of Education (1998) National Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher

Education. O'Connor, ACT: Author.

BECTA/NCSL (2004) The Matrix. United Kingdom, National College for School Leadership and British

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Bedell, J., (1994) Perceptions of the Preparation of Pre-Service Teachers in the Use of Computers and

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Bransford, J., Brown, A. and Cooking, R. (eds) (2000) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and

School Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning: Commission on Behavioral and Social

Sciences and Education of the National Research Council. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Brown, A. L., J. Bransford, et al. (1999) How people learn: brain, mind, experience, and school.

Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

CEO Forum (2004) STaR Chart, International Society for Technology in Education. Accessed on 01/10/04

at http://www.iste.org/starchart/index.cfm.

Commonwealth Schools Commission (1985) Teaching, Learning and Computers in Primary Schools.

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Cuban, L. (2000) So Much High-tech Money Invested, So Little Use and Change in Practice: How Come?

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Training, Victoria. http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/lt/pguide/index.htm.

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Department of Education Tasmania (2004) Embedding Educational Technologies, Dept of Education

Tasmania. Accessed on 01/10/04 at http://www.discover.tased.edu.au/ec/irt/EET.htm.

Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA, 1999) Real Time: Computers, Change and

Schooling: National Sample Study of the information technology skills of Australian school stu-

dents. (Canberra, DETYA and Australian Key Centre for Cultural and Media Policy).

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porate, government, healthcare & higher education, Arizona, USA.

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Taylor, R. (1980) The Computer in the School: Tutor, Tool, Tutee. New York, Teachers College Press.

GLENN RUSSELL AND GEOFF ROMEO

It is clear from the analyses presented here, as well as from other contemporary

sources (Darling Hammond and Bransford, 2005; Cheng et al., 2005) that teacher

education has become a political issue worldwide. This is not to say that teacher

education has suddenly become recognised as important in its own right. Rather, as

Earley has pointed out '… the policy world considers teacher education a device to

achieve other goals …'(2005, p. 216). The main goals in various societies appear to

be first, the raising of student achievement across the board and, second, the reme-

dying of seemingly intractable inequalities in educational achievement. These goals

are driven by two overwhelming political concerns: first, by the emergence of

economic competition on a truly global basis and second, by fears of increasingly

serious internal disaffection among marginalised groups in divided societies.

These fears of economic or social disaster seem to create political and moral panics

in which education systems (and schools and teachers and teacher educators) are

blamed for failing to respond to changed circumstances in appropriate ways.

Therefore, the political argument runs, only a significant transformation of schools

and schooling can remedy these problems. The transformation of schools depends

upon the transformation of teachers. The transformation of teachers depends upon

the transformation of teacher education. Thus teacher education has become a political

issue.

The resolution of the 'unresponsiveness' of education seems at the moment to be

pointed in one particular direction. Economic globalisation is argued by both Jansen

(Chapter 2) and Imig and Imig (Chapter 7) to be reinforcing a particular centralised

and standardised policy agenda across many political systems: one which argues that

only if politicians seize control of public education can it be transformed from its

current disorganised condition into an appropriate mechanism of modernisation in an

increasingly competitive global economy. From a policy point of view a consensus is

emerging among policy makers, encouraged by official organizations such as the

OECD and the World Bank, regarding what kind of global economy is desirable,

what education is for in relation to such an economy and how such an education

should be organised. This consensus defines education as an instrumental agency

charged with the production of individuals capable of technological innovation and

entrepreneurial dominance of crucial economic sectors. The mechanisms employed

to this end are the standardisation and concentration of curriculum (especially in its

emphasis on English literacy and the scientific, technological and commercial

aspects of numeracy) combined with a ruthless system of assessment and competition

at individual, class, school, district and state levels. Continuous comparison of

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CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 725–734.

728

performance against externally set standards and the ranking of students, teachers,

schools, districts and systems against such standards and against each other, coupled

with rewards (of public acclamation, prestige and funding) and punishments (public

ignominy, withdrawal of funds, closure) are seen as mechanisms of improvement. If

competition is good for the economy, the argument runs, then it has to be good for

schooling.

There are many problems with this argument, but two are of particular importance.

First, while competition may be good for economies, it is not necessarily good for

individual firms. Few firms survive for more than a couple of years after start-up. Of

those that do survive the annual rate of extinction is around ten percent, with frequent

peaks to twenty five percent and occasional peaks of up to sixty percent (Ormerod,

2005). It is difficult to see any political party (or indeed, any society) surviving with

elimination rates of this scale among schools. Second, such a ruthlessly instrumental

operation of education systems inevitably alienates rather than socialises many indi-

viduals, creating a further potential (and perhaps, in some societies quite immediate)

prospect of social disorder.

The argument also fails to recognise that the public education system has produced

by far the majority of the key thinkers and decision makers of our time. How can such

a system, that has been a key influence on the society that currently exists, be called

a failure?

In addition to these political problems it is clear that education systems every-

where are facing two further problems: teacher numbers and teacher quality.

Both problems might be solvable if cost was not an issue. Clearly if teacher salaries

were high enough and working conditions good enough, education systems would

have less trouble finding enough teachers of high quality. However, from the

accounts presented here, and evidence gathered elsewhere, cost is a significant fac-

tor and quality a contested notion. While this is especially the case in developing

economies where overall lack of resources is a crucial issue, it is also a problem in

developed economies where maldistribution of resources deforms access to educa-

tional opportunity.

In many countries, developed and developing alike, current policies lead to a con-

tradictory series of measures that are directed simultaneously to the reduction of

costs (through standardisation, efficiency measures, competition, privatisation and

the application of technology) and to increased performance (through promulgation

of standards, central direction and accountability regimes). These policies are

observable at all levels of education. They increasingly affect teacher education.

Arguments have been put forward that the increased resourcing of education, at all

levels, in the 1970s and 1980s did not bring with it the expected (and required)

increase in student achievement (always as measured in very narrow ways and rarely

taking into account the economic, familial and social conditions of the children being

measured). These arguments have rebounded against education. If increased funding

has not brought higher levels of student achievement, then reduced funding probably

won't hurt student achievement. But whether the inherent contradiction in the

attempt to improve quality while reducing costs will be resolved, remains to be seen.

RICHARD BATES AND TONY TOWNSEND

What is apparent from the papers collected here is the many ways in which teacher

education is being affected by these challenges. One of the most fundamental chal-

lenges to teacher education is the political questioning of the necessity of teacher

education. In Anglo-Saxon countries the New Right political ascendancy has con-

stantly belittled teacher education, seeing it as both unnecessary and, indeed,

corrupting. Their views reached fever pitch during the Thatcher years in England

where a Spectator editorial from the period claimed that

… teacher training colleges … are staffed by Marxists who peddle an

irrelevant, damaging and outdated ideology of anti-elitism to the trainees

in their charge … .[The removal of] the statutory bar on state schools

hiring those with no teacher training qualification … [therefore] would

enable headteachers to find people … who at the moment are deterred by

the prospect of having to waste a year undergoing a period of Marxist

indoctrination.

(Quoted in Scott and Freeman-Moir, 2000, p. 14)

Part of this ideological attack was a reaction to the culture wars of the second half of

the twentieth century where working class academics were developing an increas-

ingly successful attack upon the primacy of elite culture and its exclusionary snob-

bishness; a snobbishness well articulated by T S Eliot.

To aim to make … the 'uneducated' mass of the population share in the

appreciation of the fruits of the most conscious part of culture is to adul-

terate and cheapen what you give, for it is an essential condition of the

preservation of the quality of the culture of the minority that it should

continue to be a minority culture.

(Eliot, 1948, p. 32)

But Eliot rather missed the point. The working class lads who were the first generation

of their class to gain access to secondary education and then to universities were

certainly intent on mastering elite culture (much of which they found hollow and

wanting). But, more importantly, they were interested in articulating their own, working

class culture as a culture to be equally respected. And they succeeded in gaining

cultural recognition in art, literature, film, television, theatre, poetry and social and

political analysis, providing models and encouragement for successive waves of similar

demands from women, homosexuals, and, increasingly, minority and immigrant

cultures. This 'anarchy of cultures' (Bates, 2005) provides a new context and a new

set of demands for teachers and teacher education. What the Spectator saw as Marxist

indoctrination was in fact an attempt to come to terms with the meaning of this new

anarchy of cultures and to respond in ways which recognised the legitimacy of

cultural differences as well as to develop schools which could in some measure con-

tribute to the overcoming of massive inequalities in access and opportunity: schools

that could in truth 'make a difference'.

That these issues of cultural recognition and cultural justice are still with us is made

patent by the chapters in Section One. Jansen (South Africa, Chapter 2), Al-Hinai

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THE FUTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

730

(Oman, Chapter 3), Thaman (Fiji, Chapter 4), Greenwood and Brown (New Zealand,

Chapter 5), and Reid, Brain and Boyes (England, Chapter 6) each refer to the ways in

which the power of elite cultures deforms educational systems and the difficulties that

teachers and teacher educators have in addressing such issues. Moreover, it is clear

from their accounts that the residual legacy of colonialism is a further burden for

developing countries and their education systems which frequently provide a

maladaptive education directed towards ends quite foreign to their cultures and needs;

education systems which are directed more towards the requirements of metropolitan

cultures and which result in the expropriation of talent.

This conflict of demands is played out at all levels of education: on the one hand,

the requirements for a strategic education which forms the basis for technological

innovation and entrepreneurial dominance by first world economies, and on the other

hand, the requirements for a responsiveness to an anarchy of cultures clamouring for

attention and respect; in short, performance versus meaning. As Touraine observes

with particular reference to French education 'whilst schools try to adapt to the needs

of the economy, schoolchildren and students want to give meaning to their lives'

(2000, p. 151). Teacher education is caught in the political, economic and social

conflict between these demands.

Currently economic needs appear to be dominant over social and cultural needs.

The needs of the economy are increasingly made patent through stronger emphases

on standards and accountability. Imig and Imig (Chapter 7) show how federal inter-

vention through the No Child Left Behind Act in the USA has imposed a whole new

competitive regime on public schooling with significant implications for teacher

education. Here the promise of a quality teacher in every classroom has brought

about both an assault on the quality and relevance of teacher education and an assault

on the very definition of quality by the lowering of professional standards in the face

of shortages. Part of this argument relies on the current attempts to 'teacher-proof'

and 'student-proof' the delivery of the curriculum as proposed by many of the

'design models' of the last decade. Here, all the teacher has to do is follow the direc-

tions and deliver the content provided by the curriculum designer and success should

follow. Given this perception, one could argue that one does not need highly trained

people to be teachers.

The inherent contradiction that raising the quality of teacher education can be

achieved by allowing virtually anyone that chooses to become a teacher to do so

with minimal training (known in the United States as alternative certification)

whilst forcing formal teacher education programs to accept higher and more oner-

ous forms of regulation and accreditation is a thinly veiled attack on what might

be considered the 'public' method of training educators. Similar to the pressure

faced by public schools over the last decade in many parts of the world, where

charter schools and other forms of school self-management, that allowed certain

schools not to have to follow the rules imposed on regular public schools, were

lauded as being a much better way of doing things than the monolith of public

education, characterised by such comments as that put forward by a former

Minister of Education in Victoria, Australia, as justification for the government

RICHARD BATES AND TONY TOWNSEND

policy he implemented:

We already had models of highly successful schools in the non-govern-

ment or independent schools, which were attended by more than 30 per

cent of Victoria's school students. What we needed to do was make all our

schools 'independent'. We needed to dismantle 'the system'.

Caldwell and Hayward, 1998, p. 33

However, the view that anything public is necessarily less able to deliver what is

required than a private replacement is far from being proven, anywhere in the world.

The controversy over the quality of existing programs of teacher education has

largely centred around the issue of discipline knowledge versus pedagogical knowl-

edge and around theoretical versus apprenticeship models of initiation into teaching.

Despite the rather obvious over-regulation and under-funding of teacher preparation

programs the political agenda is further regulation through standardised testing of

teachers and the imposition of standardised texts based upon 'evidence based'

research. Some (Hinchey and Cadiero-Kaplan, 2005) see the re-regulation of teacher

education in a de-regulated education market as an attempt to privatise both schooling

and teacher education in the interests of increased corporate profits.

The intent appears to be first, to redesign teacher education in order to

promote private preparations and undermine academic preparation;

then to tie this effort to a need to fill classrooms … with non-unionized,

lower-salaried automatons delivering standardized curriculum in stan-

dardized fashion (2005, p. 9).

While the situation in England is somewhat different, there is still a significant push

to standardise teacher education, subject it to strict guidelines and impose forms of

accountability which demand compliance with a somewhat narrow view of prepara-

tion – one not always connected to the real, cultural, work of teaching (Newby

Chapter 8). Bates (Chapter 9) and Angus (Chapter10) discuss the effects of such

regimes on teachers and teacher education, arguing that the imposition of technical

regimes of compliance and control have the potential to undermine the ability of

teachers to engage pupils and help them make sense of their lives, as well as to

disengage them from critical participation in social, cultural and political life.

Such changes in the context of teacher education can be expected to have significant

effects on the preparation of teachers. Fortunately, however, teacher educators are

increasingly well versed in what actually works. Both the compendium of evidence

produced by Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005) and the papers presented here

show clearly that the professional pedagogical preparation of teachers has significant

effects on student learning. The focus of both research and practice on 'lifewide

learning' (Ryan, Chapter13) and 'productive pedagogies' (Zyngier, Chapter 14) and

the concentration of student teachers' attention on the effectiveness of particular

teaching and learning strategies in context clearly pays dividends as does the incorpo-

ration of Action Research into school practice (Pelton, Chapter 15). The cultural

731

THE FUTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

732

contextualisation of teaching and learning is also a significant theme, one taken up by

Gorinski & Abernethy (Chapter 16) who show how effective curriculum and pedagogy

are intimately connected with the understanding of cultural identity. The mentoring of

student teachers is also identified as a signif icant factor in adopting a professional iden-

tity (Jane, Chapter 12; Pungur, Chapter 18; Davis and Moely, Chapter 19).

It is becoming increasingly clear that teacher preparation programs by themselves

do not ensure the success of neophyte teachers. The issue of induction into the

profession is also becoming a focus of attention. The six papers in section four

devoted to various initiatives in induction all conclude that the initial transition into

teaching is crucial to the successful adoption of teaching as a career and to the imple-

mentation of successful pedagogical and professional strategies. Moreover, sustained

professional support through continued professional learning of various kinds (see

section five) shows the significance of focusing teachers' attention on the pedagogical

aspects of classroom learning and encouraging continuous reflection on pedagogical

effectiveness. One of the key factors explored here is that of the connectedness of

successful pedagogical strategies with the cultural (and therefore motivational)

learning strategies of students. What we now know is that teacher retention is linked

to teacher preparedness and teacher support. New work in Florida (Shockley et al .,

2006) considers the cost involved in replacing teachers after one or two years of serv-

ice. It shows that the cost of replacing a large number of teachers (up to 50% in a five

year period) substantially outweighs the cost of training them well and supporting

them in their first few years of teaching.

In complete contrast to those who would impose standardised, routinised pedagogy

and accountability measures, the evidence presented here in section six is that

continuous reflection on pedagogical practice and the development of appropriate

responses to observation through pedagogical innovation are clearly effective in

promoting learning.

Again, while those who advocate the adoption of information technology in the

classroom often see this as means of producing specific skills or of reducing costs,

the papers presented here (see section seven) indicate that the integration of ICT into

classrooms demands a complex understanding of the way in which communications

and information technologies can be employed to enhance pedagogy. Indeed, in these

chapters we have the beginnings of an understanding of what an electronic pedagogy

might look like.

So what are we to conclude from this array of investigations and commentary on

teacher education throughout the world? First, that education, and therefore teacher

education, is caught between competing demands for strategic education on the one

hand and responsiveness to an anarchy of cultures on the other. Currently, the strate-

gies advocated as responses to these demands are largely couched in terms of stan-

dardisation, accountability and control that diminish the space for appropriate

responses to an increasing anarchy of cultures. However, the overwhelming evidence

from research into education and teacher education shows that without appropriate

attention to cultural issues concerned with the meaning of people's lives, motivation

and attention become problematic and alienation becomes a likely outcome.

RICHARD BATES AND TONY TOWNSEND

Moreover, the evidence is quite clear that a focus on the pedagogical aspects of

learning and teaching through an emphasis on 'life-wide learning' and 'productive

pedagogies'pays significant dividends in teacher preparation and teacher effectiveness.

Again, teacher preparation programs are not sufficient in themselves to guarantee

successful teaching practice. Forms of mentoring and careful strategies for induction

supported by opportunities for continuing professional development through reflective

practice are essential in ensuring continuing professional commitment and effective-

ness. One aspect of this effectiveness is the ability to capitalise on the increasing

availability of information and communications technologies for the enhancement of

pedagogy. The issue here is not simply the development of the skills of 'using' such

technologies, but rather, their incorporation into pedagogical processes in productive

ways that enhance learning.

But the final question still remains: what then should we do? Despite the diversity

of approaches to teacher education exhibited in this volume, as elsewhere (Darling

Hammond and Bransford, 2005), there is a growing, evidence-based consensus

around what teachers should learn and be able to do. There is increasing evidence that

learning is fostered by careful attention to pedagogy within the context of curricular

practices that are responsive not only to the economic demands of systems, but also to

the cultural understandings of pupils and their communities. This does not mean that

students, teachers and teacher educators should be subject to the tyranny of particular

traditions or communities any more than they should be subject to the tyranny of the

market. Indeed, successful education may depend upon the interrogation of both mar-

kets and systems on the one hand and traditions and communities on the other so that

the choices we and our students make are informed and effective. What it does mean

is that teacher education, like teaching itself, requires sufficient autonomy to develop

its own effective practice which is cognizant of the demands of both economy and

society, of system and culture, but subservient to neither. For, as Touraine suggests,

The independence of teachers, like the independence of the judiciary, is

an essential pre-condition for democracy, whose primary task is to

restrict the power of the state and social powers of all kinds … .A school

that is no more than an administrative service is unacceptable.

(Touraine, 2000, pp. 285–287)

REFERENCES

Bates, R. J. (2005) An Anarchy of Cultures: Teacher Education in New Times. Asia-Pacific Journal of

Teacher Education, vol. 33, 3, pp. 231–243.

Cheng, Yin Cheong, Chow, King Wai and Mok, Magdalena Mo Ching (2005) Reform of Teacher

Education in the Asia Pacific in the New Millennium. Dortrecht: Kluwer.

Darling-Hammond, L. and Bransford, J. (eds) (2005) Preparing Teachers for a Changing World. San

Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Eliot, T. S. (1948) Notes Towards a Definition of Culture. London: Faber.

Hinchey, P. H. and Cadiero-Kaplan, K. (2005) The Future of Teacher Education and Teaching: Another

Piece of the Privatization Puzzle Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies. Vol. 3, 2.

(www.jceps.com downloaded November 30).

733

THE FUTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

734

Ormerod, P. (2005) Why Most Things Fail: Evolution, Exctinction and Economics. London: Faber.

Scott, A. and Freeman-Moir, J. (eds) (2000) Tomorrow's Teachers: International and Critical perspectives

on Teacher Education. Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press.

Shockley, Guglielmino and Watlington (2006) The Costs of Teacher Attrition. A paper presented at the

International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, Fort Lauderdale, Florida,

January 2006.

RICHARD BATES AND TONY TOWNSEND

737

THE EDITORS

TONY TOWNSEND

Tony Townsend is Professor and Chair of the Department of Educational Leadership

in the College of Education at Florida Atlantic University, in Boca Raton, Florida.

Previously he was in the Faculty of Education at Monash University. From 1999 until

2001 he was President of the International Congress for School Effectiveness and

Improvement (ICSEI), and he is currently President of the Board of Directors of the

International Council on Education for Teaching (ICET). His research interests

include school and teacher effectiveness and improvement, school restructuring with

a particular emphasis on public education, educational leadership, student engage-

ment, strategic planning, global education and community education and develop-

ment. He has published extensively in the areas of school effectiveness, school

improvement and community development, in Australia, Europe and North America.

He has given numerous lectures, workshops, conference papers and presentations in

the areas of school effectiveness and improvement, leadership, community educa-

tion, policy development and school and community administration in over 30 devel-

oped, and developing, countries.

Contact details: Tony Townsend, Department of Educational Leadership, Florida

Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA. Email: townsend@fau.edu

RICHARD BATES

Richard Bates is Professor of Education (Social and Administrative Studies) in the

Faculty of Education at Deakin University. His scholarly work has been concerned with

the Sociology of Education (where he contributed to the debate over the 'new sociology

of education in Britain in the '70's) and Educational Administration (where he con-

tributed to the emergence of an alternative 'critical'theory during the '80s). His work as

Dean (1986–2000) drew him into debates over teacher education and his Presidency of

the Victorian and Australian Councils of Deans of Education led him to contest official

views regarding teacher supply and demand and challenge the marginalisation of teacher

education programs. He is President of the Australian Teacher Education Association, a

past President of the Australian Association for Researchers in Education and a Fellow

of the Australian College of Education and the Australian Council for Educational

Administration. He is currently writing about morals and markets, public education,

ethics and administration, the impact of educational research, and social justice and the

aesthetics of educational administration as well as teacher education.

Contact details: Richard Bates, Faculty of Education, Deakin University, Geelong,

Victoria, 3217, Australia. Email: rbates@deakin.edu.au

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Handbook of Teacher Education, 737–737.

739

INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Gloria Abernethy is an Academic Adviser at the Bay of Plenty Polytechnic,

Tauranga, New Zealand.

Majed Abu-Jaber is Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Educational Sciences of

the Hasemite University in Zarka, Jordan.

Michael Aiello is the Head of Centre for Continuous Professional Development at

the Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, England.

Ahmed M.Al-Hinai is the Director of Human Resources Development Department,

Ministry of Education, Oman.

Mahmoud Al-Weher is an Associate Professor in Science Education and Vice Dean

of the Faculty of Educational Sciences of the Hasemite University in Zarka, Jordan.

Lawrence Angus is Professor and Head of the School of Education at the University

of Ballarat in Ballarat, Australia.

Au Kit Oi is a Senior lecturer in the Department of Creative Arts and Physical

Education at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, SAR.

Aysen Bakioglu is a Professor in the Department of Educational Science at Marmara

University, in Istanbul, Turkey.

Richard Bates is Professor of Education in Social and Administrative Studies in the

Faculty of Education at Deakin University in Geelong, Australia.

Bette Blance is an Associate of the Centre of Professional Development, Griffith

University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

Kevin Brain is a research fellow in the Unit for Educational Research and Evaluation,

School of Lifelong Education and Development, University of Bradford, England.

Liz Brown is a Lecturer in Visual Art at Christchurch College of Education in

Christchurch, New Zealand.

Gail Burnaford is a Professor of Teacher Education in the College of Education at

Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, USA.

Brian Cambourne is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education of

University of Wollongong in Wollongong, Australia.

Lorelei Carpenter is a Lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies

at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia.

Cheng May Hung is a Senior lecturer in the Department of Mathematics, Science,

Social Science and Technology at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong.

Cheung Lai Man is Principal of Cognitio College in Hong Kong.

T. Townsend and R. Bates (eds.), Teacher Education in Times of Change, 739–744.

740

Fiona Christie is a Lecturer in TESOL in the Moray House School of Education,

University of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Louise Comerford Boyes is a Research Fellow at the Unit for Educational Research

and Evaluation, School of Lifelong Education and Development, University of

Bradford, England.

Judith Crowe is an Assistant Professor of Education at California Lutheran

University, in Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

Teri C. Davis was director of the Teacher Preparation and Certification Program at

Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.

Christopher Day is Professor of Education and Co-director of the Centre for

Research on Teacher and School Development at the School of Education, University

of Nottingham, England.

Janet Draper is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Education and Lifelong Learning

at the University of Exeter, England.

Glenn Finger is a Lecturer in the School of Education and Professional Studies at

Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia.

Douglas Fisher is a Professor and the Director of Professional Development at San

Diego State University, in San Diego, California, USA.

Victor Forrester is an Associate Professor in the Department of Education Studies,

Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, SAR.

Christine Gardner has worked for many years in the Tasmanian school system and

is a doctoral student at the University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia.

Paul Gathercoal is a Professor of Education at California Lutheran University, in

Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

Ruth Gorinski is a Senior Research Leader and the Project Director Te Kauhua at

the Pacific Coast Applied Research Centre, Bay of Plenty Polytechnic, Tauranga,

New Zealand.

Janinka Greenwood is a Principal Lecturer in Teacher Education at Christchurch

College of Education in Christchurch, New Zealand.

Ozge Hacifazlioglu is a lecturer in the Faculty of Science and Literature at

Bahcesehir University, in Istanbul, Turkey.

Eileen Honan is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at The University of

Queensland in St Lucia, Australia.

Neil Hooley is a lecturer in the School of Education at Victoria University in

Melbourne, Australia.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Huang Fuqian is Professor in the Department of Theory of Curriculum and

Instruction at South China Normal University in Guangzhou, China.

David Imig was President and CEO of the American Association of Colleges of

Teacher Education (AACTE) from 1980–2005 and has recently accepted an appoint-

ment in the Curriculum and Instruction Department at the University of Maryland –

College Park, USA.

Scott Imig is an assistant professor in the Curry School of Education at the

University of Virginia, USA.

Danjun Ying is a lecturer in the English Department of the College of Foreign

Languages at Zhejiang Normal University, in Jinhua, Zhejiang, People's Republic of

China.

Beverley Jane is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University

in Melbourne, Australia.

Jonathan Jansen is Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Education of the

University of Pretoria in South Africa.

Silva Karayan is an Associate Professor of Education at California Lutheran

University, in Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

Julie Kiggins is a lecturer in the Faculty of Education of the University of

Wollongong, in Wollongong, Australia.

Ron Linser is the Role Play Simulations Director of Fablusi P/L, in Melbourne,

Australia.

John Loughran is the Foundation Chair of Curriculum and Professional Practice

and Associate Dean in the Faculty of Education at Monash University in Melbourne,

Australia.

Douglas O. Love is an Assistant Professor of Accounting at Illinois State University

in Normal, Illinois, USA.

Susanne Maliski is a Teacher at Ascension Lutheran School in Thousand Oaks,

California, USA.

Thomas McCambridge is an Assistant Professor of Education at California

Lutheran University, in Thousand Oaks, California, USA.

Gerald W. McKean is the Interim Chairperson, and an Associate Professor of

Accounting at Illinois State University in Normal, Illinois, USA.

H. James McLaughlin is Associate Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in

the Department of Teacher Education at Florida Atlantic University, in Boca Raton,

Florida, USA.

741

INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS

742

Marion Meiers is Senior Research Fellow for the Australian Council for Educational

Research, in Melbourne, Australia.

Barbara E. Moely is Professor Emerita in Psychology at Tulane University in New

Orleans, USA.

Alex Moore is the Head of School and a Reader in Education at the School of

Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment in the Institute of Education at the University

of London, England.

Mike Newby is Emeritus Professor of Education at the University of Plymouth,

England.

Dorothy Ng Fung Ping is a teaching fellow in the Faculty of Education at the

University of Hong Kong, in Hong Kong, SAR.

Jim O'Brien is Vice Dean and Director of the Centre for Educational Leadership,

Moray House School of Education, University of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Pang King Chee is Chief Executive of K C Pang Consultants Limited, Hong Kong,

and is formerly Vice President of the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong,

SAR.

Robert P. Pelton is an Associate Professor of Education and Professional

Development School Coordinator in the Department of Education and Social

Sciences at Villa Julie College in Stevenson, Maryland, USA.

Charles P. Podhorsky is an Administrator and Induction Program Coordinator for

the City Heights Educational Collaborative, in San Diego, California, USA.

Lydia Pungur is a full time doctoral student in the Department of Educational Policy

Studies at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada.

Ivan Reid is Professor of Sociology of Education and Director of the Unit for

Educational Research and Evaluation at the University of Bradford, England.

Iris Riggs is a Professor and Associate Dean in the College of Education, California

State University, San Bernardino, USA.

Geoff Romeo is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University

in Australia.

Glenn Russell is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University

Australia.

Janet Ryan is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Monash University

Australia.

Ruth Sandlin is a Professor and Chair of the Department of Educational Psychology

and Counseling, California State University, San Bernardino, USA.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jill Smith is Principal Lecturer in Art and Art History Education in the School of

Creative and Visual Arts, Faculty of Education, The University of Auckland, New

Zealand.

Konai Helu-Thaman is Professor of Pacific Education and UNESCO Chair of

teacher education and culture, at the University of the South Pacific. She is based at

the Laucala campus in Suva, Fiji.

Margaret Taplin is an educational consultant working in Mathematics Education

mostly in Australia and Hong Kong.

Tony Townsend is Professor and Chair of the Department of Educational Leadership

at Florida Atlantic University, in Boca Raton, Florida, USA.

Harrison Tse is a Lecturer in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the

Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, SAR.

Manjula Waniganayake is an Associate Professor in the Institute of Early

Childhood at Macquarie University, in Sydney, Australia.

Zachariah O.Wanzare is a Lecturer in the Department of Educational Management

and Foundations at Maseno University in Kenya.

Kevin Watson is Principal of Winstanley College in Wigan, England.

Muriel Wells is a lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Deakin University at the

Waurn Ponds campus in Geelong, Victoria, Australia.

Susan Wilks is a Senior Fellow in the Faculty of Education and Teaching and

Learning Advisor in the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The

University of Melbourne, Australia.

John Williamson is Professor of Education at the University of Tasmania,

Launceston, Australia.

Amy Yip is now retired but was previously a Senior Lecturer at the Hong Kong

Institute of Education in Hong Kong, SAR.

David Zyngier is a lecturer in Curriculum and Pedagogy in the Faculty of Education

at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia.

743

INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHORS

INDEX

745

academic freedom, 41, 459

academic learning, 95

academic orientation, 242

academic standards for teachers, 5

accountability, 9–11, 16, 19, 25, 26, 34–35,

38–39, 42, 54, 98, 104, 111, 129–131,

141, 144–145, 153, 161, 221, 301,

356–357, 366, 404, 445, 542, 599, 600,

606, 608, 630, 654, 728, 730, 731–732

accreditation, 6, 71, 106, 108, 110, 118, 170,

245, 653, 730

accreditation standards, 106, 110

action research, 17, 51, 61, 70, 73–76, 227,

339, 426, 458–460, 465, 467–468,

473–474, 510, 519–520, 523, 526–528,

543, 563, 571, 586, 613, 614, 619

Activist, 601

Advanced Professional Term (APT), 270

agency, 84, 117, 130, 136–137, 141, 564,

600, 604–605, 607, 727

alternative approach to initial teacher

education, 370

alternative certification, 6, 13, 244, 283, 730

alternative certification programs, 13, 283

alternative preparation, 103, 245

alternative programs, 6, 103, 110, 245

alternative ways of certifying teachers, 5

America Reads, 221

appropriate learning strategies, 57

assessing student performance, 352

assessment, 10, 12, 19, 21, 25, 27, 60, 82,

85, 104, 109–110, 123, 158–159, 170,

187, 194, 199–200, 220, 224, 230–231,

258–260, 262, 270–273, 285, 287, 291,

293, 311, 318, 323–324, 347, 349, 353,

359, 369, 374, 382, 392–394, 398–399,

401, 403–404, 410–411, 413, 417,

429–430, 449, 452, 458, 460–461, 462,

467, 475, 495, 499–502, 509, 512–515,

517–520, 527–528, 565, 573, 575, 587,

597–601, 605–606, 616, 632, 635,

641–643, 645–647, 652–654, 678–679,

682, 704–705, 713, 727

assumptions, 18, 34, 61, 74, 100, 247, 305,

543, 572, 589–590, 629–630, 682

at-risk, 206, 221, 229, 231

Australian Computer Society, 715

authentic assessment, 642–643, 653–654,

682

authentic reflection, 581

autonomy, 30, 34, 39, 41–42, 69, 81,

128–130, 138–139, 148, 173, 301, 346,

382, 436, 440–443, 595, 597–603, 606,

681, 733

Bachelor of Education (BEd), 115

baseline data, 474

Basic Education Schools, 44

bean counters, 148, 152

beginning teachers, 13–15, 72, 103–104,

106, 108–109, 271, 285, 303, 319–328,

332, 343–346, 348–359, 366, 371, 383,

391, 393, 417, 564, 571, 573, 578–580,

722

Biculturalism, 76

biography, 557, 573, 607, 609

boundary structures, 572, 573

bricolage, 614

Bricoleur, 614

buddy pairs, 195

bureaucratised developmental map, 404

Bush administration, 101, 103

business management, 153

capabilities, 20, 72, 138–139, 172, 255, 332,

465, 521, 715, 716

capacity building, 9, 34, 68–70, 473

centralised education system, 45

746

centralization of decision making, 96

charismatic subject, 573, 575, 578

charter schools, 6, 287, 730

Chartered Teacher Standard, 391

Chief Inspector of Schools, 118

Choice, 81

Christchurch College of Education, 68

Christian missionaries, 55

citizenship, 30, 35, 437

Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire

(CASQ), 295

civil society, 128, 132, 154

class size, 163, 320, 349, 387

classroom experience, 119, 573, 576–577,

581, 614

classroom management, 109, 227, 244, 247,

269–271, 273, 275, 277, 345, 352, 394,

421, 427, 603, 663, 699

classroom management skills, 269, 277, 352

class-size reduction, 101

clinical practice, 98, 105, 219, 222, 252, 284

clinical training, 244

Cluster workshops, 309

Collaboration, 88, 508, 519

collaborative, 16, 21–22, 48, 57, 60, 75,

83–84, 124, 171, 190, 195, 197–198,

200, 203, 228, 269, 273, 302, 307–308,

337, 374, 377, 417, 433–434, 436, 438,

447, 450, 453–454, 457–458, 466, 468,

472–473, 515, 520, 542–543, 546–548,

550–553, 600–601, 618–619, 634, 642,

657–663, 667–672, 676, 678, 694, 696,

701, 706

Collaborative Action Research, 219, 222,

225–226

collaborative inquiry, 543, 546–547,

550–553

collaborative reflection, 547, 553

colonialism, 27, 56, 730

communication technologies, 366, 565, 633,

657–658, 692, 695, 713, 716

community, 3, 5, 7, 14, 22, 26, 30–31,

35–36, 41, 54–55, 57, 68, 70, 72–73,

75–76, 79–80, 83–84, 90–91, 96,

99–100, 103, 111, 132–136, 138, 145,

147, 150, 153, 160–162, 171, 181–182,

190, 196, 199, 201–202, 220, 226, 249,

251, 255–256, 269–270, 273, 285–287,

295, 297, 302–305, 310–311, 313, 324,

332–337, 339–341, 344, 346, 349,

354–356, 358, 368, 372–375, 377–378,

416, 433, 436, 441, 448–450, 452–453,

467, 470, 472, 475, 482, 489, 520–521,

535, 536, 539–543, 550–553, 562, 585,

595, 601, 637, 642, 657–658, 660–661,

664–668, 670–672, 676, 678–679, 683,

686, 702–703, 708, 712

community colleges, 103

Community coordinators, 199

Community experiences, 332

Community Learning, 372

community of practice, 182, 310, 540–543,

550–552, 660, 664, 667–668, 671

community of scholars, 702–703, 708

Community organizations, 336

community teachers, 340

compassion, 30, 63, 298, 530

competence, 14, 19, 28, 30, 43, 120–121,

123–124, 128, 160, 255, 308, 345, 348,

359, 382, 385, 386–388, 394, 399,

401–402, 404, 416, 418, 424, 542, 574,

577, 603, 630, 660, 667, 682, 721

competencies, 71, 120–121, 194–195, 201,

222, 225, 247, 340, 365, 465–466, 473,

598, 602, 629–631, 635, 637, 649, 678,

682, 705

competent craftsperson, 573–575, 578

competent craftsperson discourse, 573, 575

competition, 25, 81, 83, 128, 142, 153, 159,

172–173, 383, 434, 515, 517, 536, 606,

663, 701, 712, 727–728

computer education, 711

computer literacy, 711, 718, 721

computer-rich environments, 712

Computers, 713, 715, 720

computers in education, 711

conceptual map of ICT skills, 635

confirmatory factor analysis, 495, 502, 504

conflict situations, 56

connectedness, 188–189, 191, 209, 340, 732

Consecutive Model, 242

constant change, 42, 43

constructivism, 102, 222, 230, 680

context-specific environment, 371

contingent/idiosyncratic aspects of

teaching, 575

INDEX

continuing professional development

(C.P.D.), 599

Continuous Development of Teachers, 7

continuous social construction of

knowledge, 372

Coordinator of Field Experiences, 288

costs, 37, 109, 159, 171, 366, 597, 644, 662,

678, 728, 732

counter-hegemony, 209

Courses with field components, 289

critical/social orientation, 243

critical reflection, 352, 470, 498–501, 504,

571, 588

cross cultural transfer, 57

cross-cultural classroom, 56

cult of performativity, 194

cultural capital, 34, 149, 153, 205, 207–208,

210, 466, 473, 482

cultural communication., 135, 136

cultural competencies, 465, 473

cultural differences, 41, 56, 71, 136, 670,

729

cultural gaps, 57

cultural justice, 729

cultural recognition, 729

cultural sensitivity, 56, 60

culturally democratic, 54, 61

culture, 8, 9, 17, 25, 28, 30–34, 43, 45–48,

50, 55–58, 60, 62–63, 76, 82, 89, 90,

133, 145, 153–154, 160, 171–173,

180–181, 231, 235–236, 284, 286–287,

299, 302, 304, 321, 337–338, 347–348,

355, 359, 370–371, 378, 424–425, 445,

447, 450, 453, 455, 458, 461, 464,

473–475, 479–483, 487, 490–491, 507,

519, 531, 540, 542–543, 552–553, 562,

565–566, 600, 604, 609, 627, 635, 644,

651, 654, 657, 664–669, 671, 700, 711,

729, 733

culture of teaching, 445, 447, 519

Culture shock, 284

curricular transformation, 12, 229–230, 238

curriculum, 9, 10, 16–19, 21, 25, 30, 33, 35,

37–39, 46, 49, 57–61, 70, 72–74, 79,

81–82, 85, 87, 91, 104–105, 108, 111,

116, 123, 132, 139, 143–144, 148–149,

152–154, 158, 170, 172, 193, 198,

205–206, 230, 232, 236, 238, 245, 249,

253, 268, 270, 274, 278–280, 283–285,

320, 324, 332, 334–336, 340, 346, 348,

350, 352, 354, 368, 372–374, 393–394,

410, 417, 426–428, 437–440, 442, 445,

447, 449–450, 452, 455, 465, 467–469,

471, 479–481, 483–486, 489–491, 504,

507–508, 510, 514, 518–520, 523–527,

529, 531–537, 540, 544, 551, 558,

562–563, 566, 588, 591–592, 597–601,

606, 614–615, 628–629, 631, 633,

636–637, 642, 644, 646, 650, 653, 657,

662, 666, 671, 687, 699, 711, 712,

714–716, 718, 720–721, 727, 730, 731,

732

Curriculum Development Council (CDC),

507

curriculum innovation, 18, 152, 540, 551

curriculum reform, 17, 143, 507, 518,

523–525, 531–533, 537

data collection, 154, 223, 233–235, 250,

372, 385, 466, 468, 470–471, 473, 475,

519, 588, 616, 631, 636

decentralization, 8, 51

Delores Report, 59

demographic changes, 15, 381

desire, 12, 51, 86, 95, 169, 209, 221, 237,

288, 332, 338, 368, 445, 463, 544, 577,

578–580, 586, 619

developing technologies, 4

digital networked classroom, 712

discipline, 12, 82, 97, 103, 109, 193, 237,

242, 253–254, 256–258, 284, 286,

319–320, 345, 347, 351–352, 355, 386,

416, 479, 508, 528, 534, 536, 659, 731

discipline knowledge, 731

discourses, 26, 31, 142–143, 208, 573–575,

577–578, 581, 601, 613–617, 621, 623,

711, 712

diverse population, 7

diversity, 4, 8, 11, 30–32, 39, 58, 81, 90,

109, 132, 135–136, 143, 170, 196, 199,

228, 230–232, 284, 293–294, 296, 299,

542, 547, 575, 629, 682, 686, 733

early childhood educators, 675–677, 679,

681–683, 687

economic progress, 58

747

INDEX

748

economic success, 95

Education Action Zone, 80

Education Queensland, 209, 630–631,

633–634, 715

educational benefits of ICTs, 628

educational bureaucracy, 59, 595

educational change, 99, 141–142, 303, 445,

450, 454, 585, 594

educational reform, 9, 42, 47, 59–60, 98, 304,

381, 436, 445, 448, 539, 604, 642, 712

educational targets, 54

educator proficiency, 635

effective teacher, 100–101, 198, 286, 353,

355–356, 359, 426, 465, 501, 607

effective teaching practices, 288–289, 448,

455

effectiveness, 4, 15, 19, 100, 103, 104, 106,

116, 141–142, 194, 245, 256, 258, 296,

344, 358, 381, 409, 412, 424, 433, 436,

457, 462, 465, 468, 472, 495, 574, 598,

603–605, 608, 680–682, 711, 716,

731–733

efficacy, 12, 19, 33, 238, 466, 470, 472, 499,

513, 598, 603, 605, 607, 609

elearner, 712

eLearning, 715

Elyer, 297

emotional aspects of the classroom

experience, 577

emotional baggage, 575, 577

emotional brain, 605

emotional identities, 604

English schools, 28, 79, 84, 113

Entrepreneurial, 600

Environmental Mystery Competition,

663–664

ePortfolios, 641

Essential Learnings, 193

eteacher, 712

Ethnicity, 56

evaluation, 16, 21, 35, 49, 164–165,

168–169, 172, 222, 230, 241, 245–248,

250, 255, 257–262, 269–270, 275,

277–278, 302, 311, 322, 348, 354,

370–371, 373, 383, 409, 411, 414, 436,

437–438, 459, 474–475, 499, 510,

517–518, 523, 527, 535–536, 540, 597,

599, 645, 652, 654, 680–682, 687

evaluation of professional development, 411

evaluation tools, 474

evidence of reflective practice, 574

expatriate teachers, 44

Expectations, 237

Experience, 22, 163, 221, 268, 270, 272,

276, 503, 547, 558, 576, 586, 691–692,

698–699, 705

experiential learning theory, 196, 495, 500,

503–504

expert consensus building, 104

expert knowledge, 99, 585

expert/novice binary, 618

expertise, 4, 26, 41, 43, 46, 49–50, 99, 139,

181, 241, 290, 311, 341, 346, 409, 417,

438, 462, 475–476, 509, 524, 541, 571,

601, 662–663, 695

Facilitator, 274, 276, 470, 473

Faculty, 15, 163, 168, 179, 183–184, 188,

216, 270, 273, 365, 369–371, 374, 705

field and clinical experiences, 287

Field Coordinator, 288

field experience, 4, 194, 197, 200, 202, 245,

267, 268–270, 272–273, 277, 279–280,

283–284, 289–295, 299, 332, 334–335,

337, 341, 345

field experience associate, 267, 269, 279

field experiences and diversity, 284

field placement, 12, 219, 221, 225, 269, 276

field teacher program, 255, 262

First Year Initiative, 182

flexibility, 43, 104, 186, 196, 296, 475, 643,

676, 678, 687

formative and summative data, 474

four resources literacy model, 20, 615

framework for Continuing Professional

Development (CPD), 391

Freedom Charter, 30

future-oriented, 196

gaze, 578, 580, 621, 623

General Teaching Council, 122

Global Classroom Project, 662

global economy, 36, 727

global market ideology, 57, 59

globalisation, 37, 56–57, 127, 136, 141–142,

154, 727

INDEX

globalisation era, 142

globalisation theories, 141

Globalization and Diversity, 7

group interaction, 12, 179

Guandong Province, 523, 526

Her Majesty's Inspectorate, 113

heterogeneous group, 185

high performing countries, 96

high quality pre-service programs, 4

high quality teacher, 14, 96, 99, 100,

103–105, 226

high stakes, 97, 98, 131, 445, 518, 597, 598

Higher Education, 101–102, 113, 115–124,

158, 160–161, 169, 172, 256, 394, 437,

457, 573

Higher Education Act (HEA), 101

highly qualified beginning teachers, 285

highly qualified teacher, 4, 96, 99, 101, 103,

109, 228, 285, 299, 317, 331

holistic teaching, 46

Holmes Group, 220, 243

Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIED),

272

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

(HKSAR), 268

human psyche, 579

ICT, 4, 21, 80, 394, 437, 439, 440, 566,

627–637, 658, 670, 675, 677, 678, 711,

714–715, 718, 721–722, 732

ICT curriculum integration, 628, 631

ICT initiatives in educational systems, 631

ICT integration, 627, 629, 631

identification, 17, 104, 107, 122, 158, 216,

223, 393, 468, 474, 482, 510, 513, 579,

580, 608, 629, 662, 691

Identity, 609

idiosyncrasy, 575

iEARN (the International Education and

Resource Network), 661

image-driven, 711, 712

Impact of Technology, 7

improvement of practice, 519

independence, 138, 202, 467, 481, 535, 608,

705, 733

independent learning, 193, 198, 586

indigenous culture, 25, 56, 62, 665

indigenous education system, 57, 59

Indigenous knowing, 568

Indigenous students, 664, 666, 670

induction, 13–15, 46, 87, 98, 121, 241, 267,

317–328, 332, 341, 353–360, 366, 369,

381–385, 388, 391, 393, 397, 401,

404–405, 448, 732, 733

Induction practices, 360

induction programs, 317–318, 328,

353–354, 357–359, 369

Information and Communication

Technologies, 21, 627

Information and Communications

Technology in Education

(ICTE), 711

information technology, 234, 425, 437, 507,

511, 711, 732

inquiry, 15, 29, 75, 171, 196, 198, 206, 220,

221, 223, 233, 242, 249, 267, 293,

303–304, 339, 370–371, 449, 470, 485,

496, 510, 519–520, 542–548, 550–553,

563, 568, 601, 613, 670

inquiry as stance, 543

inquiry learning, 196, 198

Integrative Model, 241

interactive technologies, 713

Internet, 102, 248, 275, 627, 634, 636, 645,

657, 661, 671, 683–684, 713, 715–719,

721

Internet capability, 627

Internet technologies, 715

Internship, 306–309, 312, 335, 691, 692,

698, 700, 701, 703

Intrator, 539

Introductory Professional Term (IPT), 270

isolation, 84, 229, 231, 303–304, 345–346,

348, 353, 359, 368, 438, 446–448, 450,

540–541, 636, 706

job satisfaction, 19, 87, 181, 415, 598,

603–605, 607, 609

Johnson and Golombek, 544

Kakala, 62, 63

keeping in touch, 696

Kennett government, 144, 146, 152

Knowing, 74, 510

knowing about teaching, 343

749

INDEX

750

knowledge, 4, 6–8, 11, 12, 16–20, 30,

41–43, 51, 55–61, 63–64, 68–69,

72–73, 75–76, 82, 84, 87–88, 97–112,

122–124, 128, 131, 137, 139, 144, 153,

158, 162, 167–168, 171–172, 180–181,

183, 190, 196–199, 202, 205–207,

210–216, 221–223, 227, 229–230, 238,

241–242, 245, 247–252, 255, 273,

276–277, 280, 284, 295, 298–299, 303,

305, 311, 317–319, 324, 336, 340,

344–345, 347, 349, 350, 355–356, 358,

365–366, 370–375, 378–379, 387,

409–415, 418, 421–422, 426–429,

433–435, 448–449, 455, 459, 462, 466,

473–476, 479, 480, 484, 488–490,

496–499, 501–503, 508, 511, 518–521,

526, 536–537, 541–543, 546–547, 550,

551–553, 557–568, 571, 574, 585–587,

590–593, 595–596, 600, 603, 606,

613–615, 617–618, 622, 628, 632, 636,

641, 658, 660–662, 667, 670, 672–673,

675, 677–678, 680–681, 686, 693–694,

699, 702, 712–713, 715, 717–718, 720,

722, 731

knowledge base, 17, 249, 250, 371, 473,

476, 521, 595, 600, 670

Knowledge Building Community, 372

knowledge building communities, 196, 198

leadership, 9, 26, 29, 32, 34–35, 39, 61, 71,

79, 80–82, 84–89, 172, 227, 269,

287–288, 296, 335, 356, 359, 409,

416–417, 423, 426, 429, 434–435, 439,

449, 451, 458–459, 461–463, 466, 470,

473–476, 479, 512, 525–526, 532, 537,

585–587, 591–592, 594–595, 607, 662,

672, 676

leadership skills, 296

learning community, 90, 270, 273, 302–305,

310–311, 313, 354–355, 452–453, 470,

541, 660, 683

learning culture, 43, 370, 458, 507

learning objects, 712

learning outcomes, 39, 60, 179, 273–274,

305, 409–410, 412, 414, 509, 528,

595–596, 623, 632, 682, 686

learning society, 43

learning technologies, 4, 20, 672

learning to teach, 208, 244, 249, 343, 356,

357, 692, 695, 703

learning with computers, 629, 711

Lesson study, 446, 451, 454

Lewin Project, 667

licensure, 97–98, 101–102, 106, 109, 317

lifelong learning, 193, 422, 428, 642

Life-wide, 514–515, 517

Local Authority, 115, 394

local communities, 54, 107, 111

Lord Pearson, 114

Mainland China, 18, 523, 538

Management, 85, 164, 182, 246, 272, 306,

309, 312, 396, 399, 458, 462

managerialism, 8, 34, 131, 141–142, 150,

152–153, 460, 599

managerialist approach, 382

Maori, 9, 12, 17, 67–76, 212, 229–, 239,

465–468, 470–476, 479

Maori development aspirations, 71

Mäoritanga (traditions, practices and

beliefs), 480

market, 3, 25, 57, 59, 81–84, 90–91, 117,

131–132, 135, 142, 147, 151, 153, 385,

435, 436, 441–443, 599, 683, 712, 731,

733

Market reputation, 151

mathematics, 98, 109, 214, 250, 286, 413,

445, 448, 454, 557, 565–566

MCEETYA, 632, 634, 714

meaning schemes, 572

Memorandum of Understanding, 73, 76

mentees, 179, 180–181, 183, 185–188,

189–191, 321, 324, 377

mentor teacher, 13–15, 219, 221, 268–269,

272, 274–280, 304–305, 307–311, 318,

321, 323–325, 374, 378, 528

mentoring, 4, 12, 168, 179, 180–191, 198,

205, 222, 245, 267–268, 274, 302,

309–311, 328, 333, 341, 351–352, 354,

369–370, 372, 378, 383, 389, 391, 426,

428, 450, 651, 653, 692–693, 703, 705,

732–733

mentoring program, 179, 181–187, 189, 198,

267

mentoring role, 168, 186, 378

mentorship, 182, 195, 277, 448

INDEX

meta-language, 205, 212–215

Mind Mapping, 516

Mindtools, 713

minority students, 220, 466

modus vivendi, 135–136

moral purpose, 42, 51, 602, 604, 607

motivation and commitment, 607

multi cultural contexts, 466

multiculturalism, 3, 76, 482, 490

multimedia, 630, 635–636, 642, 713, 716

Narrative, 543, 567

narrative inquiry, 267, 543–545, 547, 552

Nation at Risk, 283, 448

National College of School Leadership, 16, 80

national policy setting, 104

National Reading Panel, 220

national teachers, 44

Network technologies, 713

Networked Learning Communities, 16, 80,

83, 90–91, 434

New Basics, 193

New Labour, 82–83, 435

new learning, 12, 184, 193–194, 196, 357,

508, 574, 637, 718

new managerialism, 34, 141–142

New Teacher in School, 113

New Zealand, 9, 12, 17, 55, 57, 62–63,

67–69, 71, 229, 232–233, 236, 238,

465–467, 469, 472, 479–481, 483–485,

490–491, 628, 730

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 101

novice teachers, 13, 318–328, 332–333, 343,

347–348, 353, 447, 699

Observation, 291, 335, 503, 510–511, 513, 516

Observers, 395

ongoing professional development, 4

online communication, 632, 636, 657, 668,

714

online community, 658, 671

Online Initiatives, 714

Online Writing Lab, 651

outcomes-based approach to assessing

students, 194

Pacific Education Research Fund

(PERF), 62

Pacific Island schools, 57

Pacific people, 55–57, 60, 62, 63–64

Palmer, 180–181, 189–190

participation, 12, 19, 33–34, 38, 47–48, 60,

70, 72, 133, 158, 168, 172, 190,

229–234, 270, 292, 295, 325, 351, 354,

411–414, 434, 438–439, 470, 472–475,

486, 508, 512, 518, 523, 525, 532,

537–538, 558, 561–565, 568, 618, 634,

642, 644, 659–660, 662, 664, 668–670,

672, 695, 702, 731

participatory research, 19, 558

partnership, 15, 54, 55, 60–61, 68, 71–72,

75, 91, 119, 124, 143–144, 173, 195,

219–220, 222, 227, 232, 245, 252, 270,

274, 287, 299, 301–302, 305–306, 309,

313, 333–334, 368, 371, 374–375,

377–379, 435, 437, 480, 487, 525,

533–534, 537–538, 565, 599, 702

paternalistic culture, 50

PAVOT (Perspective and Voice of the

Teacher), 586

pedagogical knowledge, 41, 247, 250,

473–474, 586, 731

pedagogical power, 180, 190

pedagogy, 6, 9, 12, 25, 51, 56, 102, 111,

143–144, 196, 205–208, 215–216, 223,

229–232, 235, 238, 245, 247–248,

250–251, 268, 285–286, 317, 335, 341,

344, 367, 427, 448, 495, 577, 581, 600,

606, 615, 634, 636, 669, 688, 694, 699,

711, 718, 721–722, 732–733

perceived usefulness of observation, 394

performance, 3, 9, 10, 12, 25–26, 35, 38, 45,

49, 54, 56, 72, 81–85, 91, 98, 100, 103,

105, 109, 116, 120–121, 129, 132, 147,

150–151, 153–154, 157, 160, 162,

167–169, 171, 190, 194, 199, 206,

220–221, 224, 231–232, 237, 243–246,

250, 255–256, 258–260, 267, 269, 275,

283–285, 287, 289, 311, 319, 343, 353,

356, 360, 387, 410, 418, 430, 441, 449,

455, 466, 489, 509, 512, 514–518, 520,

573, 575, 599, 601–602, 606, 608,

630–632, 651–652, 670, 694, 699–700,

703, 728, 730

Performance Activities and

Assessments, 288

751

INDEX

752

performance orientation, 147, 151, 153

performativity, 81, 131–132, 194, 599, 601,

605, 608

personal biography, 607, 609

personal development, 106, 137, 243, 468

personal orientation, 243

personal practical knowledge, 546, 550,

552, 553

policy borrowing, 37, 98

policy debate, 98, 99, 143, 148

policy maker, 3, 42, 50, 84, 95–100, 104,

106, 108–111, 131, 161, 317, 322,

343, 409, 429–430, 467, 475, 495, 504,

599, 727

political involvement, 104

politicalization of education policy, 107

politicalization of teacher education, 10

portfolios, 335, 636, 641–642, 644, 650,

652–653

post-professionalism, 602

power, 3, 7, 8, 10, 21, 29, 31–36, 41, 47, 49,

50, 68, 72, 83, 90, 97, 103, 115,

127–128, 138, 142, 180, 190, 230–231,

236–238, 296, 305–306, 371, 416,

480–482, 518–519, 535, 546–547, 549,

558, 562, 572, 599, 622–623, 628, 675,

706, 730, 733

Practical orientation, 242

practice settings, 17, 465

practicum, 12, 22, 194, 199, 254, 267–268,

270–274, 276–280, 283, 291–293,

301–302, 305, 311, 341, 349, 366–368,

370, 372, 378, 448, 574, 691–696,

698–700, 704, 707

preconceptions, 208, 572

predispositions, 572

premise reflection, 499, 500, 502, 504

preparation of teachers, 96, 251, 283, 301,

365, 731

pre-service education, 344, 346, 352, 355,

358–359, 614, 696, 722

preservice program, 97

preservice teacher education, 11, 179, 190,

301, 366, 628

preservice teacher education students, 190

pre-service teachers' (PSTs), 193

Pressures, 681

Problem-based learning, 372

problem-solving, 193, 498

productive pedagogies, 196, 206, 209–210,

214–215, 731

professional climate, 474

professional competence, 128, 382, 404

professional consensus model, 106

professional cultural capital, 149

professional culture, 153, 154

professional development, 4, 13, 15– 17, 19,

39, 42–45, 47–51, 72–73, 81, 95–97,

100, 121, 162–172, 186, 206, 229,

238–239, 278, 289, 303–304, 352–353,

355, 357, 359, 381–383, 385–389,

391–392, 394, 402, 404–405, 409–418,

426–429, 434, 439, 446–447, 449–454,

457–458, 460, 463, 465–468, 470–476,

495, 507, 523, 525, 538–539, 544, 574,

599, 613–614, 618–621, 630–631,

633–634, 650, 684, 687, 707, 714, 733

professional development model, 446

Professional development programs,

445, 448

Professional Development School, 219–220,

226–227, 270–271, 276

professional experience, 17, 194–195,

198–199, 358, 367, 383, 404, 519, 571

professional field, 153, 194, 197, 200,

202, 580

professional growth, 17, 43, 274, 285, 302,

313, 318, 351, 354, 358, 369, 378, 523,

537, 594

professional identity, 149, 154, 171, 343,

382, 600, 604, 607, 609, 732

professional journey, 594

professional knowledge, 16, 43, 99, 153,

247–248, 349, 365, 387, 411–412, 414,

418, 476, 543, 617

professional learning, 16, 19, 42, 122, 197,

273–274, 301, 306, 354, 412, 441, 448,

471, 474, 520–521, 540–541, 545,

551–552, 571, 573, 592, 692–693, 695,

700, 703, 706–707, 732

professional learning communities, 16,

471, 474

professional positionings, 579

professional practice, 194, 207, 343, 352,

393, 458

professional selves, 603

INDEX

professional support, 345, 598, 732

professional teacher, 103, 113, 241, 285,

303, 322, 389, 542, 631

Professional Teaching Portfolios, 269

Professional Teaching Standards, 106

professional values, 152, 607

professionalism, 19, 41–45, 48–49, 51, 56,

108, 119–121, 124, 152, 172, 249, 368,

383, 416–417, 436, 442, 490, 597,

600–602, 604, 606–608

Proficiency, 635

progressive educational practices, 143

Project Learning, 508–509, 515, 517–518

Promnitz & Germain, 1996, 232

proximal development, 222

public accountability, 19, 600, 608

public education, 5, 6, 107, 228, 296, 455,

727, 728

pupil learning, 95, 98, 423

Quality teaching, 466, 467

Read to Achieve, 219–220, 222, 224,

226–228

reading, 20, 50, 72, 102, 109, 119, 220–222,

224–226, 291–292, 413–414, 471, 507,

540, 565–566, 604, 616, 618, 621, 636,

651, 652, 669, 670, 679, 694, 720

Recognition, 162, 628

reflection, 15, 18–19, 22, 75–76, 167,

197–201, 215, 219, 221, 223, 226–227,

235, 269, 274–275, 279, 286, 289,

295, 304–305, 310, 318, 324, 333, 352,

378, 383, 393, 404, 411–412, 414,

419–420, 423–424, 429, 435, 452–453,

458–460, 468–470, 474–475, 495–504,

508, 510–511, 513, 516, 519, 527–528,

540–541, 544, 545–549, 552–553,

557–559, 561, 564–565, 568, 571,

573–574, 577, 581, 587–588, 620,

645, 676, 691, 700, 702–704, 706–708,

713, 732

reflection on practice, 19, 571, 573

reflection-in-action, 498–499, 516

reflection-on-action, 498, 545, 552

reflective approaches to teaching and

learning, 195

reflective journals, 286

reflective practice, 18, 51, 196, 221, 268–269,

378, 441, 442, 495, 504, 574, 581

reflective practice discourse, 574

reflective practitioner, 18, 19, 199, 310, 374,

499, 578, 613, 614

Reflective Practitioner, 7

Reflective Professional, 247

reflective teaching practices, 454

reflective thinking, 17, 495, 498, 500–503

Reform, 81, 206, 609, 637

reform initiatives, 11, 42

regional teachers' colleges, 54, 61

regulation and autonomy, 128–129

relationships, 12, 13, 29, 56–59, 63, 72–77,

80, 83, 87, 122, 127, 131, 133, 179,

182, 189, 195, 197, 210, 211, 229–232,

235, 237–238, 267–269, 280, 308, 338,

341, 349, 358, 366, 369, 373–375, 404,

409, 415–416, 436, 443, 466–467,

470–472, 476, 481, 495, 503–504,

542–543, 550–552, 604–609, 615,

618–620, 622–623, 628, 679, 681, 688,

692, 694, 700, 706

Research Lesson, 446, 453

research methodology, 70, 473, 481, 484

research-based approach, 105

researching practice, 588

retention, 12, 13, 15, 72, 82, 162, 179, 229,

230–236, 238–239, 244–245, 267, 279,

287, 318, 336, 355, 358, 381, 388, 435,

448, 466, 468, 599, 608, 609, 732

role expectations, 55, 56, 346, 348

role of parents, 111

role of schooling, 57

role play simulation, 22

role-models, 592

Root, 299

rote-learning, 45–46

safe environment, 550, 552

sanctions, 21, 56, 110

scaffold for professional development, 405

school and college partnerships, 220

School Charter, 145–148, 151, 153

school coordinators, 269, 280

School Council, 147, 148, 151, 153

school culture, 45, 47, 90, 145, 302, 304,

347, 359, 474, 607

753

INDEX

754

school effectiveness, 4, 15, 141–142, 381

school effectiveness and improvement, 15

School Improvement Plan, 219

School Improvement Team (SIT), 224

school leaders, 32, 322, 323, 356, 359, 409,

524–525, 532, 537

School partners, 219

school principals, 12, 150, 246, 255–262,

273, 358–359, 525, 532, 537, 571, 614

school university partnership, 13, 304–305

school-based curriculum, 507

School-based learning, 372

school-based practioners, 222

secondary teacher education, 54

Secretary of Education, 4, 102

self-esteem, 43, 167, 190, 345, 508, 531,

590, 609, 696

self-reflection, 420, 423–424, 429, 499,

501, 508

self-understanding, 19, 576

Service Learning, 286–290, 292, 295, 651

shared language, 474, 552

situated learning, 196

social capital, 133–134

social influence, 609

social justice, 29, 35, 70, 147, 151, 153, 296,

434, 679

social justice perspective, 151, 296

social skills, 229, 442, 507, 657

Stability, 376

stakeholders, 21, 33–34, 54, 73, 83, 124,

220, 255, 301, 306, 309, 311, 313, 343,

374–375, 379, 382, 435, 460, 462,

472–473, 475, 597, 608, 683, 685, 707

stand-alone curriculum, 657

Standardized tests, 98

standards, 5, 6, 9, 10–11, 14–16, 18, 21, 26,

38, 41–42, 82–83, 90, 98, 105–107,

109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 118–124,

129–130, 157–162, 164, 166–167,

169–173, 194, 198, 231, 237, 248, 275,

283–286, 293, 321–324, 331, 340, 354,

358, 367, 370, 381, 410, 417, 436, 442,

455, 526, 575, 597–598, 601, 605, 609,

629–630, 632–633, 642–643, 644, 646,

651–654, 675, 687, 714, 728, 730

Standards and Accountability, 7, 9

standards of accreditation, 6

STAR Reading Assessment, 224

State certification, 101

status for teachers, 5, 107

Status of Teachers, 59, 129

structural equation models (SEM), 501

student achievement., 3, 18, 98, 220, 227,

244, 409, 411, 445, 447–450, 466, 468,

471, 474, 728

student centred pedagogy, 143

student learning, 4, 60, 95–96, 101, 104,

108, 110–111, 206, 215–216, 270, 285,

303, 312, 409, 411–414, 424, 445–447,

449–450, 455, 467, 471–472, 476, 507,

510–511, 514, 518, 523, 586, 601, 642,

657, 712–713, 731

student learning outcomes, 60, 409, 412, 414

student participation, 12, 158, 229–230,

232–234, 518, 642

student performance, 3, 129, 352, 410, 449,

466, 515, 517, 520, 528, 651

systemic online initiatives, 633

targets, 54, 83, 98, 110, 147, 153, 394, 449,

508, 597

Te Kauhua, 465, 469–471, 473–474, 476

te reo Mäori (the Mäori language), 485

Teacher as Learner, 526

teacher attrition, 13, 317, 318, 320, 448

teacher autonomy, 39, 441

teacher certification programs, 246

teacher commitment, 42, 162, 319, 388

Teaching Commission, 286, 299

teacher concerns, 415, 424

teacher development, 16, 248, 277, 318,

370, 426, 430, 450, 510, 544, 574, 599

teacher education, 4, 6–13, 15–16, 18, 20–21,

39, 45, 47, 54, 60–62, 70–71, 73–74,

95–119, 121, 127–130, 132–134, 139,

141–142, 179, 190, 205–208, 210, 227,

241–244, 246, 249, 251–254, 258,

267–268, 270–271, 279, 283, 285, 299,

301–302, 304–307, 310, 313, 323,

331–334, 337, 340, 341, 347, 350,

353–354, 356, 359, 365–372, 375, 381,

383, 419, 424, 426, 474, 479–480, 491,

495, 504, 543, 566, 568, 573, 580, 613,

INDEX

615, 619, 628–630, 634–637, 675, 691,

700, 704, 715, 717–718, 722, 727–733

teacher education wars, 102

teacher efficacy, 470

teacher growth, 274, 524

Teacher Induction, 7, 321, 392

teacher isolation, 446, 450

teacher knowledge, 101, 213, 250, 489, 541,

543, 590, 592

teacher led professional development, 452

teacher licensing, 108

teacher numbers, 693, 728

teacher preparation, 4, 12, 97, 100, 102,

104–106, 110, 124, 129, 220–222, 227,

241, 243–246, 249–252, 254, 256, 261,

283, 284–285, 299, 301, 317, 332, 340,

350, 356, 631, 731, 732, 733

Teacher Preparation and Certification

Program, 285–286

teacher professional development, 16, 43,

206, 409, 414, 427, 454, 465, 472, 476,

631, 714

teacher professional identity, 149

teacher professionalism, 41–42, 45, 48,

51, 108, 121, 152, 368, 417, 436, 597,

606, 607

teacher proof, 16, 59, 445

teacher quality, 3, 4, 12, 95, 100–101,

220–221, 283, 317, 728

teacher research, 19, 221, 358, 440, 454, 543,

585–587, 591–592, 594–595, 613, 619

teacher research process, 594

teacher researchers, 19, 221, 454, 592, 595

teacher retention, 245, 267, 287, 318, 448

teacher satisfaction, 416–417

Teacher Satisfaction Survey, 224, 226–227

teacher shortage, 11, 13, 103, 327, 331,

333, 628

teacher success, 16, 279, 344, 415–420,

422–426, 428–430

teacher supply and retention, 15, 381

Teacher Training Agency (TTA), 117, 124

Teacher-centred learning, 670

teachers, 3–22, 25, 27, 30, 31–32, 35,

37–39, 42–45, 47–51, 54–62, 64,

69–76, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86–91, 95–104,

106–111, 113–117, 119–124, 127–129,

131–133, 138–139, 141–144, 146–152,

154, 157, 162, 170–172, 182, 190,

193–194, 198–199, 201–202, 205–216,

219–222, 224–228, 230–232, 237–239,

241–262, 267–289, 291–293, 296, 299,

301–313, 317–328, 331–341, 343–360,

365–369, 371–372, 374, 377–379,

381–389, 391–394, 396–397, 400,

403–405, 409–430, 433–436, 438–443,

445–455, 457–459, 465–466, 468–476,

479–480, 484–487, 490–491, 495,

500–503, 508–512, 514–518, 520–521,

523–529, 531–544, 546–547, 552–553,

564–565, 568, 571–581, 585–588,

590–592, 594–609, 613–623, 627–637,

641–645, 647, 649–651, 653, 658–659,

661–662, 664–665, 667–672, 691–696,

698–707, 711–718, 720–722, 727–733

Teachers as co-learners, 533

Teachers as Leaders, 536

teachers as professionals, 18, 45, 51, 119

teachers as reflexive practitioners, 618

Teachers as researchers, 249

Teaching 124, 201–202

teaching and learning, 12, 16–17, 19–22, 44,

55, 58, 60, 62–63, 90, 91, 111, 160,

166, 179, 182, 193–198, 200–201, 203,

215, 221, 248–249, 252, 334, 336, 339,

357, 376, 394, 404, 412, 435–436,

438–440, 442, 445, 460–462, 471, 476,

491, 507, 510, 514, 519, 521, 539–541,

568, 575, 577, 585–588, 591–592, 595,

598, 601–602, 605–606, 615, 628–629,

633, 635–636, 642–643, 652, 654, 657,

675, 678, 680, 686–687, 703, 711–712,

715–717, 731–732

teaching commitments, 86, 383

teaching methods, 10, 208, 246, 251, 257,

258–262, 351–352, 415, 422–424,

428–429

teaching profession, 11, 14–15, 44–45, 99,

108, 113, 120, 122, 128, 153, 241–242,

253, 267–268, 271, 309, 318, 343–345,

349–353, 355, 358–359, 366–367, 385,

417, 490, 615

teaching skills, 4, 43, 241, 273, 285, 345,

365, 421

755

INDEX

756

technician teacher, 102

Technological orientation, 242

Technology, 7, 22, 368, 437, 508, 628, 630,

633–634, 649, 711, 715, 721–722

technology and assessment, 653

technology in the classroom, 667, 712, 718

telecommunications in teaching and

learning, 657

Temporary Certification, 6

testing, 8, 26, 35, 98, 131, 153, 248, 250, 331,

413, 597–600, 606, 636, 663, 697, 731

theory and practice, 199, 221–222, 365, 463,

468, 560, 585, 596, 650, 692, 694

theory/practice binary, 615

theory-practice gap, 585, 595

thinking curriculum, 193

time, 4, 6, 7, 11, 13–17, 19, 25–26, 32–33,

35, 42–43, 45, 47, 49, 50–51, 53, 56,

62, 63, 73, 79, 85–90, 97, 99, 100,

104–105, 109, 114–119, 122–123,

143–144, 146–148, 151–152, 161, 165,

167–168, 172, 179, 181–182, 184–185,

187, 190, 198–200, 207–210, 214, 225,

228, 234, 237, 241–242, 245, 247–248,

252, 268, 270–271, 276, 278–279, 283,

288, 296–298, 301–304, 306–308, 310,

313, 317, 320–322, 324, 333–334, 338,

340, 343, 347–350, 352, 354, 357–359,

366, 368–369, 372, 377–379, 382–386,

388–389, 391–392, 398, 400–402, 405,

410–414, 416–417, 424, 426, 429–430,

436, 440–442, 446–448, 451–453, 455,

458–460, 463, 467, 470, 472–475, 483,

496, 498, 499, 504, 509, 511, 513, 514,

517–520, 523–524, 527–528, 531–538,

541, 544–550, 557–559, 563, 565–566,

568, 572, 575–576, 578, 587–588,

590–591, 593, 599, 602–607, 613,

616–618, 620–622, 629, 635, 641,

643–644, 646–647, 649–653, 657–658,

661–662, 664, 668–669, 671–672,

675–676, 678, 680, 682–683, 685–688,

691–692, 695, 698, 699, 701, 703–704,

706–707, 715, 718–720, 728

traditional programs, 109, 110, 271

traditional teacher education programs, 109

Training & Development Agency for

Schools (TDA), 124

transformation, 12, 28, 33, 35, 55, 168, 229,

230, 236, 238, 250, 365, 496–497, 503,

542, 564–565, 628, 707, 727

transformational potential of ICTs, 628

transformative learning theory, 495,

499–500, 503–504

transition from pre-service training, 15,

343, 353

Treaty of Waitangi, 9, 69, 479–480, 484,

486–491

Trust, 189, 376

U.S. Department of Education, 285,

317, 649

uncertainty about finding work, 392, 404

UNESCO Chair, 60–61

university facilitators, 13, 15, 267, 269, 278,

280, 374, 375

unqualified teacher, 383

Values, 35, 393, 507, 508, 528

values education, 18, 523–526, 528–529,

531–535

valuing teacher research, 586

varied demographic conditions, 3

Virtual community, 660

Virtual Schooling Service, 633, 634

vision, 33, 43, 47–51, 69, 90, 190, 230,

309, 310, 339, 348, 359, 455, 461,

482, 514, 539, 541, 594, 607, 635,

652, 654

webfolio system, 21, 642, 645, 647, 649,

651, 653, 654

Webfolios, 644

Wells, 21, 541, 551, 552

Wenger, 196, 541, 542, 543, 550, 552, 660,

667, 702

Whitehurst, 103

whole school experience, 268

Winstanley College, 460, 462–464

worker productivity, 95

workload, 15, 84, 86–87, 91, 158, 184, 305,

328, 345, 383, 385, 387, 417, 425–426,

429, 463, 509, 511, 517, 687, 702

World Bank, 98, 727

World Wide Web, 684, 715, 719, 721

World Wide Web (WWW), 684

INDEX

... The technology used in ILBS-ECHO has demonstrated its utility in educating clinicians through co-managed care of underserved patients [5]. The geographic isolation of many communities in India precludes [15] ongoing on-site professional education or consultation. ...

... The technology used in ILBS-ECHO has demonstrated its utility in educating clinicians through co-managed care of underserved patients[5]. The geographic isolation of many communities in India precludes[15] ongoing onsite professional education or consultation. ...

Aims: The objective of the study was to assess the effectiveness of the one-day training program on liver care among nursing professionals using online training platform of ECHO (Extension for Community Healthcare Outcomes). The study also aimed to assess the impact of one-day training program on liver care on their attitude and practice at least after four months. Study Design: Pre-post design Place and Duration of Study: Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences New Delhi and 26th March 2019 till 22nd February 2020. Methodology: A one-day training program titled "Approach to patients with liver diseases" on management of liver infections for nursing professionals was conducted. An online link for KAP and Pre-post knowledge assessment questionnaire consisting 32 (KAP) questions was shared with all registered participants. Same Knowledge questionnaire consisting 19 questions was shared with the participants after training. Four months after training impact assessment was conducted by sharing the online link with the participants of the conducted program. The data was extracted in MS excel. The continuous variable was presented as mean and standard deviation (SD) or median and Inter quartile range (IQR) as appropriate. The categorical variable was presented as frequency and percentages. Paired t-test was used to assess the difference in pre and post knowledge assessment. For performing the requisite analysis, knowledge score was divided as poor-to-moderate (<66.67%) and Good (≥66.67%). The analysis was performed in IBM-SPSS version 22. Results: A total of 5974 nursing professionals were trained in 17 one day trainings and data for KAP and pre-post assessment data was available for 4647 and 3456 participants respectively, out of which 295 participants were analysed for impact assessment. Correlation coefficient between knowledge, attitude and practice score stated Pre-knowledge score was significantly correlated with attitude (r=0.19, p<0.05) and practice (r=0.20, p<0.05) whereas attitude and practice were also found to be significantly correlated (r=32, p<0.05) with each other. Conclusion: The results from this study support the use of ILBS-ECHO model in tele mentoring the health care professionals by providing education and training in assessment and management of liver diseases. The technology used in ILBS-ECHO has demonstrated its utility in educating clinicians through co-managed care of underserved patients.

... Learning is symbolized not only by increased autonomy for the learner, but also has a higher focus on participatory learning. With constitution of subject matter, dissemination and participation enacting key roles, and on different roles for the teacher, indeed, even a debacle of the distinction between teacher and student altogether (Meiers 2007). ...

Industry 4.0 is a vital activity as of late presented on the planet. The objective of the activity is change of modern assembling through digitalization and abuse of possibilities of new advances. Industry 4.0 includes a wide arrangement of advancements that gives a decent stage to development and inventive arrangements. So as to actualize such condition, it requires the usage of cutting edge expectation instruments that includes the transformation of information into data in an orderly procedure to clarify vulnerabilities. This innovation is a chance to change the monetary principles of the business. The Industry 4.0 generation framework is in this way adaptable and empowers individualized and redid items. The point of this investigation is to introduce and encourage a comprehension of Industry 4.0 ideas, its drivers, empowering influences, difficulties and openings. The examination is likewise featuring the job of the Government on the side of Industry 4.0. Every one of the informations and data utilized in this examination has been acquired from secondary sources

... The technology used in ILBS ECHO has demonstrated its utility in educating clinicians through co-managed care of underserved patients. The geographic isolation of many communities in India precludes [15] ongoing on-site professional education or consultation . While there are a variety of educational programs and media available at this time, most online venues do not involve face-to-face interactions with colleagues and do not address their professional isolation. ...

Project ECHO is aimed at developing capacity for safe and effective treatment of chronic, common and complex diseases in rural and underserved areas while monitoring outcomes to ensure quality of care. ILBS is the rst institute to replicate this model in India under the aegis of ILBS-ECHO program with a goal to identify, treat and manage liver related disorders across the country. Using state of the art tele health technology and clinical management tools ILBS-ECHO trains and supports physicians in the community to develop knowledge and self-efcacy on a variety of diseases not usually considered within their scope of practice. As a result, these physicians can deliver best practice care for complex health conditions in community-based sites where this specialty care was previously unavailable. Using the technology developed project ILBS- ECHO aims to build on and successfully implement the ECHO model to the Indian scenario.

... Furthermore, teaching quality is related to the teachers' pedagogical content knowledge, which includes content knowledge, effective teachings, and the knowledge on how students learn the content (Meiers, 2007;Shulman, 1987). The implication of pedagogical content knowledge is applicable in the daily teaching, such as maintaining students' motivation, subject-related attitudes, and other forms of students development (Shulman, 1987). ...

Syahruddin Syahruddin
Andi Ernawati
Muhammad Natsir Ede
Khadijah Binti Daud

The extent of the role of teachers' pedagogical competence on the practice of school-based management (SBM) was explored in this study. Interviews have been conducted in order to collect the qualitative data from the participant in Pare-Pare, South Celebes, Indonesia. It was discovered that the teachers' pedagogical competence has not been developed as it was expected. Accordingly, it was reported that teachers' creativity was limited by the domination of the government's interference. It is suggested that in order to improve the quality of SBM, teachers' continuing professional development is highly required.

... Teachers must be professional. Professional teachers can master science and learning models, can motivate students, and have broad insights [2]. These three things can be achieved by teachers if they can master four teacher competencies, namely pedagogical competence, personal competence, social competence, and professional competence [3]. ...

... Teachers reported that the school offered Arabic to develop functional literacy in Arabic to enable students to read and understand the Koran and Hadith. The school offered Islamic Studies, which included History, Hadith, Aqidah, and Fiqh to develop knowledge and skills to read the Koran, understand hadith, and applied the values learned in everyday life (Meiers, 2007). It also aimed to understand the life story of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) from childhood to adulthood, prophethood era and imitate the values in it. ...

Kamarodin Abas Abdulkarim
Fitriah M. Suud

This study evaluated the Madaris curriculum integration for Muslim primary education in Mindanao. It assessed the psychological effects of such integration on teachers and students in Arabic writing and reading, religiosity, Islamic values, and teacher professional development. This qualitative and quantitative research used a descriptive-evaluative design. The purposive sampling method was used to collect data using a questionnaire which was analyzed statistically. This study showed that the psychological effects of integrating teachers and students to Arabic writing and reading, religiosity, Islamic values, and teacher professional development worked well. Both teachers and students demonstrated the ability to write and read Arabic, values about God, Islam, people, the nation, and the environment.

Purpose – As demonstrated in the literature, teachers ' knowledge sharing, self-efﬁcacy and creativity display certain levels of cause-and-effect and correlational connections from different perspectives. Nonetheless, few studies, if any, have been reported on the interplay of these three concepts in the context of the language classroom. As such, this study aims to test a structural model of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers ' knowledge sharing, self-efﬁcacy and creativity and speciﬁcally to examine the hypothesis that creativity mediates the relationship between EFL teachers ' knowledge sharing and self-efﬁcacy. Design/methodology/approach – The participants were 384 EFL teachers from different language institutes across Iran. The EFL teachers were selected based on random stratiﬁ ed sampling method. To verify the research hypotheses, a quantitative correlational design was used in the present study. The quantitative data was collected using three questionnaires, and then descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. Therefore, we used the EFL teachers ' creativity questionnaire developed by Khany and Boghayeri (2014), knowledge sharing behavior scale by Ramayah et al. (2014) and teachers ' self-efﬁcacy questionnaire by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001). To analyze the data, Pearson correlation and multiple regression were run. Findings – The ﬁndings revealed the hypothesized model of relationships among the study variables. The results also con ﬁrmed the mediator role of creativity. The implications of the ﬁndings in relation to creativity, knowledge sharing and self-efﬁcacy are discussed. Originality/value – The bulk of research on teacher self-ef ﬁ cacy has concentrated fairly adequately on its relationship with factors such as teachers ' re ﬂ ective practice, critical thinking, emotional intelligence, personality and student achievement. What seems to be rather missing in this line of research has to do with the exploration of the possible links among knowledge sharing, self-efﬁcacy and creativity as interacting variables, especially in the context of Iran where teachers ' knowledge sharing is lower than expected. More importantly, no previous investigation has tapped into the mediating effect of creativity on the connection between English teachers ' knowledge sharing and self-efﬁcacy.

Parisa Yeganehpour

All countries, regardless of their level of development and position in the world economy and relations, try to adopt similar survival behaviors in the management of educational institutions since the first signs of the corona outbreak. Numerous people are contextually forced to learn from each other in this new adapted environment while not everyone is pessimistic about the pandemic situation and its unexpected obligations. Many people believe that the pandemic crisis is an opportunity to warm up the foundation of family relationships and the integration of high standard virtual education at global and inclusive levels. The unexpected change in social and educational intuitions reminds humanity of the vital and bright side of technology in this critical period. This chapter examines and models how virtual education can save money and resources to provide well-designed and purposeful learning opportunities for students to learn without fear when proper plans are implemented to overcome the impact of crises through the power of technological social learning.

Elke Binner

Im Rahmen der Qualitätsentwicklung und -sicherung von Unterricht wurden in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten auf Bundes- und Länderebene auch Maßnahmen zur Professionalisierung von Lehr-personen festgelegt. Vor diesem Hintergrund begannen 2012 am Deutschen Zentrum für Lehrerbildung Mathematik (DZLM) auch Arbeiten, um bestehende Fortbildungsangebote für Grundschullehrkräfte zu erweitern. In dieser Arbeit wird das Konzept einer Stochastik-Fortbildung für Lehrpersonen, die Mathematik in der Grundschule unterrichten, vorgestellt. Die Entwicklung greift Forschungserkenntnisse zum Verständnis von professioneller Kompetenz von Lehrpersonen und zur Gestaltung von Professionalisierungsprozessen auf und bindet konzeptionell Impulse für Unterrichtsentwicklungsprozesse ein. In fünf Kursdurchführungen wurde das Konzept realisiert und hinsichtlich seiner Umsetzbarkeit untersucht. Die in diesem Rahmen gewonnenen Daten von 120 Lehrpersonen geben detailliertere Einsichten in Entwicklungsprozesse unterschiedlich qualifizierter Lehrpersonen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen insbesondere, dass in der fachinhaltlich orientierten Fortbildung ein fachlicher und fachdidaktischer Wissenszuwachs erreicht werden kann. Die Defizite bezüglich einer mathematischen Grundausbildung eines Lehramts können bei Lehrpersonen, die Mathematik fachfremd unterrichten, auf diesem Weg aber nicht überwunden werden. Die Untersuchungen zeigen zudem, dass die qualifikationsheterogene Zusammensetzung der Kursgruppen die Durchführung und das Lernen der Lehrpersonen bereichern. Mit der Einbindung des Konzepts der Professionellen Lerngemeinschaft (PLG) in den Kurs und Erprobungen in den Praxisphasen gelingt es, Impulse für Unterrichtsentwick-lungsprozesse zu geben. Diese Fortbildung kann ein berufsbegleitender Baustein in der Ausprägung von Lehrkräfteprofessionalität sein und den lang andauernden Prozess der Konstruktion und Selbstkonstruktion des Berufs unterstützen.

Masoud Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki

Teacher retention has remained a severe challenge for the American educational system. Retention of literacy teachers and reduction of their turnover can be more imperative given that literacy teachers are obliged to teach the foundational academic skills to students. Among the key factors inciting teacher turnover are work-family conflict (WFC) and burnout. This mixed-method research examined the relationships between WFC, burnout, and turnover intentions among literacy teachers. The study involved two phases: the quantitative phase using mediation analysis and the qualitative phase using interviews. The participants for the quantitative study were a sample of around 164 American literacy teachers. Self-report surveys were used for data collection, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the mediating effect of burnout on the effect of WFC on turnover intentions. Semi-structured and one-to-one interviews were conducted in the second phase of the study. The sample for the interview study were five literacy teachers with high scores on the turnover intentions scale. For the analysis of interview data, thematic content analysis (TCA) was undertaken. The findings indicated that WFC significantly predicted burnout and turnover intentions. Burnout also significantly predicted turnover intentions, and burnout mediated the effects of WFC on turnover intentions. Also, controlling the effects of grade level (elementary and nonelementary) and years of teaching experience did not have a statistically significant effect on the initial findings. The results of TCA also indicated that teachers perceive student misbehavior and parent behavior as significant contributors to teacher burnout and turnover intentions.

This study uses a national probability sample of 1,027 mathematics and science teachers to provide the first large-scale empirical comparison of effects of different characteristics of professional development on teachers' learning. Results, based on ordinary least squares regression, indicate three core features of professional development activities that have significant, positive effects on teachers' self-reported increases in knowledge and skills and changes in classroom practice: (a) focus on content knowledge; (b) opportunities for active learning; and (c) coherence with other learning activities. It is primarily through these core features that the following structural features significantly affect teacher learning: (a) the form of the activity (e.g., workshop vs. study group); (b) collective participation of teachers from the same school, grade, or subject; and (c) the duration of the activity.

This report examines effects of structural and process features of professional development programs on teachers' knowledge, practice and efficacy. It is based on four recent (2002-2003) studies undertaken through the Australian Government Quality Teacher Programme, designed to enhance teacher quality. The total data set for the survey study includes 3,250 teachers who had participated in eighty individual professional development1 activities within these studies. Teachers were surveyed at least three months after participating in an activity, which provided them with the opportunity to gauge the impact of programs on their practice. To investigate factors affecting impact, a theoretical model was developed based on recent research into the characteristics of effective professional development and tested using blockwise regression analysis. The model included contextual factors (e.g., school support), structural features of programs (e.g. ,length), process features (e.g., emphasis on content; active learning; examination of student work; feedback; follow-up), a mediating variable (level of professional community generated), and four outcome measures (knowledge; practice; student learning and efficacy). Consistent significant direct effects were found across the four studies for the impact of content focus, active learning, and follow-up on knowledge and professional community. Feedback was rarely incorporated into program design. Impact on efficacy was strongly related to the perceived impact of activities on teachers' practice and student learning outcomes.

David Cohen
Heather C. Hill

Educational reformers increasingly seek to manipulate policies regarding assessment, curriculum, and professional development in order to improve instruction. They assume that manipulating these elements of instructional policy will change teachers' practice, which will then improve student performance. We formalize these ideas into a rudimentary model of the relations among instructional policy teaching, and learning. We propose that successful instructional policies are themselves instructional in nature: because teachers figure as a key connection between policy and practice, their opportunities to learn about and from policy are a crucial influence both on their practice and, at least indirectly, on student achievement. Using data from a 1994 survey of California elementary school teachers and 1994 student California Learning Assessment System (CLAS) scores, we examine the influence of assessment, curriculum, bear out the usefulness of the model: under circumstances that we identify, policy can affect practice and both can affect student performance.

Thomas Guskey

Describes five levels of evaluation to improve professional development: Participants' reactions, participants' learning, organization support and change, participants' use of new knowledge and skills, and student learning outcomes. (Contains 14 references.) (PKP)

What are the Attributes of Excellent Teachers? Paper presented at Research Conference

J Hattie

Translating teaching practice into improved student achievement

J Supovitz

Improving Student Performance through Professional Development for Teachers Executive Summary, First in America Special Report, NC Education Research Council

Charles L Thompson

What Key Club Medals Do They Give to High School Graduates When Having Qa Lot of Volunterring Hours

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226853425_Teacher_Professional_Learning_Teaching_Practice_and_Student_Learning_Outcomes_Important_Issues

What Key Club Medals Do They Give to High School Graduates When Having Qa Lot of Volunterring Hours

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